Consolidation as a Nation

Nehru’s Foreign Policy

India and her Neighbours 1947-64

Issues

colonial legacy of international disputes, partition etc
aftermath of world war 2 and emergence of Cold War
Bloc Politics

India decided to conduct its foreign relations with an aim to respect the sovereignty of all other nations and to achieve security through maintenance of peace, also evident from the DPSPs.

Nature

Indian foreign policy was based on the principle of peaceful coexistence. The government emphasised on inculcating good neighbourly relations with all nearby countries.
Emphasis on mutual respect has been another fundamental aspect
It is non-discriminatory approach
Believe in the use of non-violent methods for resolving international disputes and differences
During early years after Independence India’s foreign policy was influenced by prevailing Cold War scenario. Government emphasised on maintaining independent stand on important matters of international concern so that Indian foreign policy could remain unaffected from Cold War politics
Elements of change and continuity or visible as per time in situation
It is anticolonial and nationalist in outlook as India always supported the quest of different countries and groups of people for independence from foreign domination
Principal of internationalism was pursued by Indian leaders to have friendly relations with every nation of world
India does not believe in intervention in internal matters of other nations and respect their sovereignty
Idea of nonalignment was put forward by Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru and India as one of the founding members of non-aligned movement

Factors Shaping India’s foreign policy

Experiences gained during long struggle against colonial rule played an important role in shaping India’s foreign policy. Since India suffered in the colonial rule government of Independent India always supported struggle for independence of other nations
Ideals and values of Indian national movement shaped India’s foreign relations.
Geographical realities played important role in shaping foreign policy because India believed in maintaining good relations with neighbours for peaceful coexistence
Means of social economic development played an important role as India had to take a long stride to lift millions out of poverty after independence. Rourkela steel plant Was set up a German help in 1955. Durgapur steel Plant was set up in cooperation with Britain in 1962. Bhilai and Bokaro were set up with help of USSR in 1967 and 64 respectively.
Cold War between the capitalist and communist bloc also influenced India’s foreign policy. India wanted to remain away from bloc politics and hence perceive the policy of nonalignment
Look East to Act east
SAGAR Security and Growth for All in the region

Limitations

When China captured Tibet in October 1950 government of India voluntarily renounce all Indian traditional rights in Tibet. Indian leadership believed in the spirit of brotherhood with China but this did not turn out as planned and China attacked India in 1962.
1956 when Britain attacked Egypt over Suez Canal issue, India led the world protest against this new colonial invasion. But when USSR invaded Hungary India did not protest it.
policy of import substitution to create self reliance, restricted India’s interaction with outside world.

Success

Idea of nonalignment conceived by Indian leaders gave a position of leadership to India among Third World countries. Then Cold War was at its peak government of India could maintain friendly relations with both superpowers.
The decisive victory of India against Pakistan in 1965 and 1971 reflected India’s successful foreign policy.

Non Aligned Movement

Indian Freedom struggle had inspired many liberation movements in colonised countries and was part of decolonisation wave across globe.
Foreign policy reflects interplay of domestic and external factors. Thus India’s freedom struggle also inspired its foreign relation.
3 main objectives of Nehru’s foreign policy were-

to preserve the hard earned sovereignty
protect territorial integrity
promote rapid economic development
to be achieved via policy of non alignment.

Nehru’s - focus was to not get entangled in power politics and not to join any group against other.Pakistan on the other hand joined US led military alliances.
India supported decolonisation, was against racism, especially apartheid in South Africa. The 1955 Afro-Asian Conference in Bandung zenith of Afro Asian unity.

Sino India Relations

India was one of the 1st countries to recognise the Chinese govt after the 1949 revolution. Relations between India and China have a history of more than 2000 years of close economic and cultural contacts. But issues related to Tibet and different interpretations of border and resulted in war.

Relations with Tibet and Chinese Discomfort

India Tibet Relations can be traced back to Young Husband mission by Governor General Lord Curzon in 1903 to 1904 to counter the increasing Russian influence in Tibet. It imposed a treaty on Tibet giving India commercial privileges and allowing british government of India to maintain troops in Tibet to safeguard its interest. Tibetan government promised to not allow any third party to participate in development of means of communication or in strengthening Tibetan arm forces.
Western part of Indo Tibetan border was delineated by Johnson line in 1865. Eastern part delineated by the Mac Mahon line in 1914.
Chinese Communist regime did not recognise the Mac Mahon line and opined that real Indochina border was far south. Tibet was an autonomous part of Chinese Empire and there was nominal Chinese rule over it before 1950.
In October 1950 Tibet was captured by China through a military action. Chinese government promised senior leadership that no military action will be taken against Tibet but the promise was violated and even then India did not react and renounced all privileges there.

Immediate Reasons for indo China war

Even after Chinese accession of Tibet in 1950 relations between India and China remained cordial and friendly.
In April 1954 Panchsheel agreement or the Five principles of Peaceful coexistence signed. It involves mutual nonaggression; mutual noninterference in each other's matters; mutual respect for integrity and sovereignty; peaceful coexistence and equality and mutual benefit.
In 1956 -57 popular revolt emerged in Tibet against Chinese domination and Chinese government believed India was supporting the rivals. In 1959 the massive uprising broke out in Tibetan capital of Lhasa. Chinese government resorted to ruthless oppression under the circumstances. Dalai Lama fled to India after Indian government extended shelter to him on humanitarian grounds. This was strongly objected by China.
Asylum to Dalai Lama in 1959 worsened India China relations leading up to Chinese invasion in 1962. The boundary disputes with China claiming rights over NEFA and Aksai Chin had been bone of contention.
Between 1957 - 1959 China occupied Aksai chin & started building infrastructure.
1962 China launched an attack on Indian frontier in both Aksai Chin and NEFA. Indian forces suffered massive defeat with Chinese troops occupying area up to Assam in north east.
When the relation soured further military commencement built up from both sides. Government of India instructed its armed forces to reach the border and on 20 October 1962 China declared war on India since it did not consider Mac Mahon line as the border. On 21 November 1962 China declared unilateral ceasefire and withdrew its forces back to pre-war positions.

Significance

India lost 1488 soldiers, 1696 soldiers went missing and 1047 were wounded. 3968 soldiers were captured by China. Losses on Chinese side were far less with 722 casualties and 1696 wounded.
Indian forces were no match for Chinese military strength within one month Chinese troops entered more than 20 km in India. Though China retreated to pre war position After declaring unilateral ceasefire, defeat in war was humiliating & had several consequences.
This dented India’s image at home and abroad . India had to approach soviet and British for military supplies. It induced a sense of humiliation and at the same time strengthened Indian nationalism. For the first time a no confidence motion was introduced against Nehru government in Lok Sabha. It took more than a decade for India China relations to resume.
This defeat exposed India’s military weakness and crude failure of Indian military. After this attention was paid to strengthening India’s military.
This war was a wake up call to reorganise India’s strategy of protection in the North east.

India- Pakistan Relations

Dispute over Kashmir right after the partition.
Indus water treaty brokered by world bank signed in 1960.

War in 1965

Pakistan believed the defeat of India from China has rendered Indian armed forces weakened and hence attacked India along Rann of Kutch area in Gujarat & Jammu and Kashmir.However, Indian troops were successfully able to defeat Pakistani forces and reached up to Lahore.
It was triggered by ambitious and offensive Pakistani desire to capture Kashmir. Pakistani government of Mohammed Ayub Khan was under impression that the morale of Indian forces was very low due to defeat at the hands of China in 1962 in one big push would crumble Indian side. To test Indian resolve a dispute was started in Kutch region in January 1965. Pakistan demanded 3500 m squares of area from India. In April 1965 serious clashes were witnessed between India and Pakistan along Kutch border. The matter was later referred to international tribunal. Due to its success in Kutch region Pakistan planned a two front war against India and Kashmir. On August 5, 1965 more than 26,000 soldiers From Pakistan infiltrated into India dressed as civilians. When the soldiers came to India’s notice war commenced on August 15, 1965 and lasted till 23 September 1965 then Pakistan unilaterally declared ceasefire and withdrew the forces to pre-war position.
Tashknet Agreement- mediated by Russia on 10th of January 1966emphasised that both India and Pakistan would pull back to their forces to prewar position and will not interfere in each other’s matters. Economic development would be restored and good relations would be maintained.

Bangladesh War, 1971

1970 1st general election in Pakistan resulted in victory of Zulfikar Ali Bhutto in west Pakistan and Sheikh Mujib ur Rehman of Awami League in East Pakistan. The west Pakistani leaders didn’t accept the democratic verdict and instead used armed forces to suppress unrest in east Pakistan. Sheikh Mujib ur Rehman was arrested and reign of terror prevailed in east Pakistan.
Large exodus of refugees from east Pakistan started moving into India through the borders. India extended moral and material support to freedom struggle in Bangladesh, while Pakistan accused it of conspiring against its unity.
Pakistan was supported by USA and China. USA- China- Pakistan axis emerged which was countered by Indo- Russia Treaty of peace and friendship in 1970.
War broke out between Indian and Pakistani forces in 1971. Pakistan attacked Rajasthan and Punjab, while army moved on the Jammu & Kashmir front. Indian Air Force, Navy and army launched an attack on both eastern and western frontiers with Pakistan. Within 10 days Indian army had surrounded Dhaka forcing the Pakistani army of about 90,000 to surrender.
Bangladesh was declared a free country and India declared unilateral ceasefire. This victory led to national jubilation in India - a clear sign of growing military prowess and glory.
Shimla Agreement- both countries agreed to abide by principles of UN charter on international relations. All differences between two nations to be resolved through bilateral negotiation or other peaceful means mutually acceptable to both. Both agreed to respect integrity and sovreignty of each other. They decided not to interfere in internal matters of each other. It was agreed to take steps to resume communications to restore trade and commerce and facilitate exchange in fields of science and culture. Prisoners of war were to be exchanged peacefully.
Kargil War 1999

Kargil conflict when occupation of Mujahideen of Indian territory raised suspicion of Pakistan army involvement. India was able to retain most of the occupied points .

India played crucial role during Korean war and its resolution

After Korea’s Independence in 1945, India was chairman of a nine-member UN Commission that was set up to hold elections in Korea.The success of the election in the South Korea was the seed behind the formal establishment of the Republic of Korea (RoK) on August 15, 1948, a day which coincides with India’s Independence Day.

Playing a role to support peace, India maintained a balance between the two Koreas.

The Korean War was a war between North Korea (with the support of China and the Soviet Union) and South Korea (with the principal support of the United States).

began on 25 June 1950 when North Korea invaded South Korea.
India supported the declaration to term North Korea as an “aggressor” in the UN resolution
But when the US forces crossed the 38th parallel without UN approval and sought to declare China as an “aggressor”, India decided to vote against it

Nehru’s larger fear that Korean War may devolve into a final showdown between US and Soviet Union, dragging India into a World War.

Also as China is its neighbor, it was afraid of the spill over effects.
Nehru wanted to bring the war to an end quickly. So, he wrote to Soviet premier Stalin in hopes of getting Soviet Union to bring peace. Stalin replied immediately with a proposal of resolving the war by talks which seemed reasonable to Nehru but not to Washington.
Nehru continued to be the key contact for every player in the war from Britain and the United States to Soviet Union and China. New York Times declared that the struggle for Asia “could be won or lost in the mind of one man – Jawaharlal Nehru”.

India instead of sending its armed forces on the request of UN had sent a medical unit to Korea as a humanitarian gesture.
India played a mediatary role during the war, and both North and South Korea accepted the India-sponsored resolution to end the war. As a result, a ceasefire was declared on July 27, 1953.
India was the chairman of the Neutral Nations Repatriation Commission which would handle the prisoners of war (PoWs) of both sides and interview them to determine which of them wanted to go back.

India dispatched a 6000 Indian Custodial Force to Korea.
It was a thankless job for which India received flak from all sides. Communists kept delaying the process.
Americans got incensed when they found out that 22 Americans held by China had turned pro-communists and wanted to stay back.
Chinese government insisted that Indians should shoot prisoners if they try to escape. Irritated, India eventually resigned from its position and gave the remaining prisoners back to the United Nations.

For India and the US, the Korean War contributed in deterioration of their relationship. As the Korean War was ending, Americans had begun providing military aid to Pakistan, riling up New Delhi.
On the other hand, the war elevated Nehru’s prestige to great heights in the world, solidifying his image as world’s leading statesman. For the rest of his life, there was no major global discussion in the world, which could occur without his involvement.

India And Africa

The Indian Freedom Struggle developed a strong international outlook, with the elimination of colonialism and racism all over the world as the foremost concern, and INC established contacts with freedom movements in other countries.

Influence on Liberation Movement in Africa

Gandhi became the leader of colonized people in South Africa.
Est Indian Natal Congress in 1894.
Political organizations were established by Indian diaspora in other parts of South Africa like Transvaal Indian Congress (1903) and South African Indian Congress (1920).
Gandhi became the link between them and Indian National Congress (INC). They were in constant touch with political leaders of INC and other leftist formation in India.

Pressure against indentured labour:

INC delegations in early twentieth century to inspect and report on mistreatment and discrimination of indentured labour.
They established contact with their leaders and were in constant touch with them later on.
Pressure by this group within INC led to the discontinuation of the indentured labour system.

Opposition to deployment of Indian soldiers by INC in Sudan and Ethiopia as they were not fighting for the cause of India.
INC inspired African leaders to take up their fight for liberation from colonial rule.

In 1928, Calcutta session of INC, the Indian struggle for freedom was officially linked with world struggle against imperialism and colonialism.
It set up an overseas department to establish contact with political formations and leaders in Africa (AICC Calcutta Session 1928).

INC was looked upon as a role model to gain independence. It overtly supported African nationalist leaders.Under Gandhi and later under Nehru, it opposed racist policies of British Government in African countries.
Indian National Congress’ Working Committee passed resolution on the discrimination prevailing in the Union of South Africa and Kenya.

In 1934, it tendered its sympathies to the Abyssinian. In 1937, it called for an embargo against Zanzibar and it welcomed Wafdist delegation from Egypt to attend the Congress Working Committee meeting in 1939.

Jawaharlal Nehru visited Brussels Congress of Oppressed Nationalities in 1927 met leaders from North Africa & Sub-Saharan Africa like Leopod Senghor.
Indian since 1928, linked its own freedom struggle with African struggle against imperialism and colonialism and it looked at African decolonization as the continuation of its own struggle
The Second World War.

The Indians in South Africa With the encouragement of the Indian national movement recognized that their destiny was linked to that of the African majority and increasingly participated in joint struggles against racist measures.

After independence:

India has supported Africa in freedom struggles through NAM and has strongly supported Africa to eradicate Apartheid at global level.

The common oppressor and common problems made Africa and India to share and learn from each other in their freedom struggle and liberation.

India’s Nuclear Policy

1st nuclear explosion by India in May 1974 emerged as a nuclear power in world. Nuclear power countries reacted sharply to India’s nuclear tests. However India maintained a stand that its experiments were peaceful and were only a deterrent measure considering it had 2 nuclear power neighbours.
India considered the 1968 Nuclear Non Proliferation Treaty as discriminatory and refused to sign it. Since they were selectively applicable to non nuclear weapon states and legitimised the monopoly of 5 nuclear power countries. India opposed indefinite extension of NPT in 1999 and also refused to sign the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty.
India’s Nuclear doctrine has declared a “No First Use” strengthening India’s commitment to global, verifiable, and non discriminatory nuclear disarmament to a nuclear weapons free world.

Linguistic Reorganisation of States 1935 to 47

Challenge of drawing internal boundaries of the nation in such a way that linguistic and cultural plurality of the country could be maintained without affecting the unity.

Nagpur session 1920 congress promised division on linguistic basis. However, with the horror of partition fresh in mind the govt of independent India was reluctant to reorganise the country on linguistic basis. They feared such a division could lead to disruption and disintegration and would draw away attention from other socio economic challenges.

At the time of Independence Indian states or not organised properly because 530 native states to be amalgamated with former british provinces within a short span of time. Therefore effective territorial organisation was a necessity so that India could take form of a cohesive political entity.
The task of reorganisation was further complicated because of demand from various quarters to carry out reorganisation on basis of language. For the first time issue of organising administrative units on basis of language was put forward by Bal Gangadhar Tilak in 1916 when he suggested such an organisation for Congress units.
SK Dhar Committee

by the constituent assembly in November 1947 to suggest the basis for organising native states, report in November 1948 and suggested reorganisation should be carried out on the basis of four parameters – geographical continuity; administrative convenience; economic self-reliance and potential for development.

JVP Committee

Jawaharlal Nehru, Vallabhbhai Patel and Pattabhi Sitaramayya
appointed by the Indian national Congress to review the report of the higher commission.
rejected the demand for linguistic reorganisation
needs of national unity, security and economic prosperity should be kept in mind at the time of reorganisation of states.

However, protests began in Telugu speaking areas of old Madras province. The Vishalandhra Movement for separate state of Andhra demanded separation of Telugu speaking areas from Madras province. Potti Sriramulu went on an indefinite fast dying on the 56th day creating widespread protests and violence, forcing govt to create the 1st state- Andhra Pradesh on linguistic basis in 1952. Formation of Andhra spurred struggle for making of other states and govt appointed the States Reorganisation Commission.

Fazl Ali Commission 1953

look into the feasibility of linguistic reorganisation of states.
report in 1953. On the basis of these recommendations States Reorganisation Act, 1956 - 14 states and 6 union territories were created on basis of language.

It was hoped that acceptance of regional and linguistic demands of all regions may reduce the threat of division and separatism.

Positives

opened politics to people other than small English speaking minority
provided a uniform basis for drawing state boundaries and further strengthened national unity
enhanced and underlined acceptance of unity in diversity

Challenges

Demand for separate states on linguistic basis may endanger unity of nation as it may foster separatism and put pressure on newly independent India
Language was not the sole basis for reorganisation for eg Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand and Uttarakhand were created due to regional imbalance in development.

Regionalism and Regional Inequality

1980s can be seen as a period of rising regional aspirations for autonomy, often outside the framework of Indian union. These often involved armed assertions by the people, their representation by the govt and a collapse of the political and electoral processes.

Indian constitution has even created in a way to ensure that the rights of different regions and linguistic groups are well preserved. There is assurance of an Indian Union united social life without losing the distinctiveness of the numerous cultures which constitute it. Indian nationalism sought to balance unity and diversity.

India adopted a democratic approach to diversity ensuring political expression of regional aspirations without considering them as anti national. Further democratic politics allows parties and groups to address people based on their regional identity, aspirations and certain regional problems. Thus in course of democratic politics, regional aspirations get strengthened. It also ensures regional problems and issues receive adequate attention and accommodation in policy making process.

Issues of regional aspirations led to creation of new states

Jharkhand & Chhattisgarh
Uttarakhand and UP
Andhra pradesh and Telangana
Maharashtra and Gujarat

Jammu & Kashmir

Contestation between India and Pakistan
3 socio-political regions- Jammu, Kashmir, Ladakh
Rise of issues during independence when the princely state had to chose to accede to either India or Pakistan. The ruler Hari Singh signed an instrument of accession with India. However, unhappy with the decision Pakistan sent a group of infiltrators to attack the state. The attack was curtailed by Indian forces who intervened at request of the maharaja and led to inclusion of Jammu and Kashmir in Indian territory.
However, Pakistan continued to lay it’s claims on Jammu and Kashmir. It has continued funding militants and infiltrators across the border to create tensions in the state.
The special status given to Kashmir under Art 370 and art 35A which was revoked in 2019 was a provision to safeguard its autonomy within Indian union and slowly integrate the state fully. Now Jammu and Kashmir has been made into a union territory which would eventually have a separate legislative assembly and region of Ladakh has also been given the status of union territory separately.
Art 370 was a source of tension for long both within the state and outside. While the state believed the provisions were not enough to protect the Kashmiri identity and autonomy, those outside believed such a special status to a state within a federal government was not constitutionally and morally correct.
There was also constant conflict between the state government and the central government. Sheikh Abdullah of National conference was at helm of affairs in the state but was dismissed in 1953. Again the dismissal of his son Farukh Abdullah’s govt by centre generated resentment among the Kashmiri people.
By 1989 the rise of militant forces in Kashmir created a new sense of instability. The insurgents got moral, material and military support from Pakistan. This led to imposition of presidents rule in the state and elections were held only in 1966. Throughout the period the affairs in the state were under control of armed forces.
rise of separatists assumed different forms while some demanding integration with Pakistan, others arguing for separate status of a country for Jammu and Kashmir while others argue for greater autonomy within India itself.

Punjab & Haryana

Social composition of state changed with partition and later on after separation of Haryana and Himachal Pradesh. Akali Dal was dominant in leading agitations for creation of a Punjabi subah.
Akalis came to power in 1967 and in 1977 as coalition govt. Their govt during the 1st term was dismissed by the centre. Also they did not enjoy full support within the Hindu community and even the Sikh community was internally differentiated on caste and class lines.
By 1970s a section of Akali’s started demanding political autonomy and passed the Anandpur Sahib Resolution in 1973. This asserted regional autonomy and wanted to redefine centre state relationship. It reflected the aspirations of the Sikh community and declared its goal as attaining dominance or hegemony of Sikhs.
However, the resolution had limited appeal amongst the Sikh masses. When the Akali govt was dismissed in 1980 the Akali dal launched a movement over the issue of distribution of water between Punjab and its neighbouring states. Some sections started demanding autonomous Sikh identity while extreme factions started advocating secession from India and creation of Khalistan.
Soon the Khalistani extremist forces started becoming more dominant and the movement took form of armed insurgency. The militants made their headquarters in the Sikh holy shrine golden temple Amritsar and turned it into an armed fortress.
June 1984, govt of India carried out operation blue star - army action in golden temple. It was able to successfully flush out militants, but also destructed the temple deeply hurting the religious sentiments of sikhs. A large section of sikhs saw the military action as an attack on their faith which further gave impetus to militant and extremist groups.
PM Indira Gandhi was assassinated in 1984 October by her Sikh bodyguards. This led to emergence of violence in Delhi and other North Indian states against sikhs. This continued for a week in which more than 2000 sikhs were killed in the national capital. Many Sikh families were hurt and the inaction by govt for long assured their belief that state was partisan in its approach.
Rajiv Gandhi became the new PM in 1984 and initiated dialogue with Akali dal leaders. In 1985 he reached an agreement with Harchand Singh Longowal the president of Akali dal, Rajiv- Longowal Accord or the Punjab accord, 1985.
It was agreed that Chandigarh would be transferred to Punjab, a separate commission would be appointed to resolve the water dispute between Haryana and Punjab and a tribunal would be set up to decide on water sharing agreement of Ravi-Beas river between Punjab, Haryana and Rajasthan. It also provided compensation to those affected by militancy in Punjab and withdrawal of AFSPA from Punjab.
However, violence continued for more than a decade. Militancy and counter insurgency led to police excesses and violation of human rights. It led to fragmentation of Akali dal. President’s rule was imposed in the state and elections were suspended, when elections were held in 1992 only 24 % voters turned out.
Militancy was eventually eradicated by security forces, but the losses incurred were enormous. Peace returned only by mid 1990s and stable govt was elected in 1997. Politics had gradually moved back on secular lines.

North East

1980s was a turning point in regional aspirations of north east . It had undergone political reorganisation - Nagaland created in 1963; Manipur, Tripura and Meghalaya in 1972; Mizoram and Arunachal Pradesh became states in 1987.
after the partition the region became land locked which significantly affected its economy. Cut off from rest of the nation the region was also affected by neglect in development. Politics was also insulated from rest of the nation. Most of the states also underwent demographic transition due to influx of migrants from neighbouring states and countries.

Issues- demand for autonomy, movements for secession and opposition to outsiders

Demand for Autonomy

At independence entire all regions except Manipur and Tripura Were in state of Assam. it was when the non Assamese sections in Assam felt imposition of Assamese language on them they started demanding autonomy. There were opposition and protest riots throughout the state. The est of Eastern India Tribal Union which later transformed into a more comprehensive All Parties Hill Leaders Conference 1960 started demanding tribal states to be carved out of Assam. Finally, instead of one several states were carved out - Meghalaya, Mizoram, & Arunachal further, Tripura and Manipur were also upgraded as states.
reorganisation was complete by 1972. However, demands for autonomy continued within Assam communities like bodos, karbi and dimasas started demanding separate states. All have now been granted autonomy under district councils within the state of Assam.

Secessionist Movements

some groups demanded separation from Indian union and create their own countries
Mizoram

some felt they were never part of British India and therefore did not belong to the Indian union
Mizo National Front under Laldenga in 1966 started an armed campaign for independence. The army was ordered to curb the rise of armed rebellion and this continued for more than 2 decades. The MNF was supported by Pakistan and found safe havens in east Pakistan.
Eventually Laldenga came back from political exile and started negotiations with Rajiv Gandhi govt. a peace agreement was signed between the 2 in 1986- Mizo Accord
granted full fledged statehood to Mizoram with special powers. MNF gave up armed struggle. Laldenga took over as chief minister.

Nagaland

under leadership of Angami Zaphu Phizo a section of Nagas declared independence from India in 1951. He turned down offers for negotiation.
Naga National Council launched an armed struggle for sovereignty of Nagas.
A section of Nagas finally signed an agreement with the govt which was not accepted by other rebels leading to continued agitation by secessionist forces.

Movement Against Outsiders

Large scale migration in the North east gave rise to problems between locals and migrants

migrants were seen as encroachers by the locals who were their competitors in terms of land, employment, resources etc

Assam Movement from 1979 to 85 demanded the illegal Bengali migrants to be sent back from Assam to Bangladesh. They demanded detection and deportation of these foreign nationals.
1979 All Assam Students Union (AASU) led a strong anti foreigner agitation, against domination of Bengalis and other outsiders, and against faulty voter register which included names of many such immigrants. They demanded deportation of all immigrants who had entered the state after 1951. They were successfully able to mobilise the Assamese people across the state. Many a times there was violence leading to loss of life and property.
the govt under Rajiv Gandhi led negotiation with leaders of AASU leading to signing of Assam Accord in 1985. According to this those foreigners who had entered Assam during and after the Bangladesh war and since, will be identified and deported.
the leaders of AASU and Asom Gan Parishad organised themselves into a political party Asom Gan Parishad. It came to power in 1985 promising creation of a Golden Assam.

Regional aspirations are a part of democracy. These strengthen the democratic process of maintaining regional diversity and localised form of development. With significant negotiations and power sharing these aspirations can have a positive effect on overall growth of Indian democracy.

Integration of Princely States

After winning independence from british rule on 15 August 1947 India began the task of integrating the native states. At the time of Independence there were 562 native states out of which 31 with Pakistan and 532 with India. They had their typical political and social cultural identities and had strong centrifugal tendencies. The task of integration was given to Sardar Patel head of home department and department of native state and assisted secretary to home department VK Menon.

Government Approach under Patel

Patel was aware of the complexities of the challenge, Therefore used a combination of policy of persuasion and of pressure to prevail upon Native.
Under the strategy of persuasion Patel appealed to the nationalist spirit of native rulers. Their contribution to India in the past was appreciated. Native rulers were termed as the great rulers of India and their leadership has sought for the newly emerging Indian nation. Native rulers were guaranteed complete ownership rights over the property held by them. The revenue loss taking place as a result of integration with Indian union was to be compensated by privy purse. rulers were promised higher status and place of prestige in Indian union.
Pressure was applied to those native rulers who failed to respond to persuasion. Such native rulers were threatened with possibility of mass agitation and police action. They were warned that if they did not integrate willingly they would lose their entire resources as well as their prestige.
This deadly combination of pressure and Persuasion was highly affected by 14 August 1947 529 states agreed to sign the instrument of a session to Indian union. States which were left out were Kashmir, Junagadh and Hyderabad.
Hyderabad

Hyderabad was one of the biggest native states with population of 17 million. It was ruled by Nizam Osman Ali Khan who wanted to join Pakistan but the geographical factors obstructed his desire. As a result he thought of creating an independent state of Hyderabad but the people wanted to merge with Indian union.
On 29 November 1947 Hyderabad signed a standstill agreement with Indian government. But the Nawab use this as an opportunity to carry out the demographic transition of Hyderabad for pushing poor Hindu peasants out of Hyderabad in neighbouring territories.
When Nizam used his private militia of Razakars to change the population composition by using force. This militia was headed by Kasim Rizvi.
When lakhs of Hindus started flooding from Hyderabad to save their lives a large-scale humanitarian crisis developed in neighbouring Indian territories. Under the circumstances government of India had to initiate police action with operation Polo on 13 September 1948.
On 18 September 1948 Hyderabad was brought under Indian control and eventually the Nizam accepted integration of Hyderabad with India on 22 September 1948.

Junagarh

It was a bordering state ruled by Nawab Mahabat Khan 3 Who harboured the desire to join Pakistan against the wishes of the people. Also there was no geographical connectivity with Pakistan he thought of the open sea as a connection to Karachi.
Against the desire of people Nawab declared integration of Junagadh with Pakistan in September, 1947. This led to an immediate revolt by the people forcing the Nawab to run away to Pakistan with his family leaving Junagadh in chaos.
Shahnawaz Bhutto the Dewan of Junagadh requested the government of India to take over responsibility of administration. On 9 November 1947 government of India assumed responsibility of administration of Junagadh.
To ascertain the desire of people of Junagadh a plebiscite was held on 20 January 1948. In this 1,80,000 votes supported integration with Junagadh with Indian union and only 91 voted for integration with Pakistan.
Arzi Hukumat Movement played an important role in integration of Junagadh with Indian union.

Kashmir

Kashmir was the bordering states ruled by Raja Hari Singh. The ruler as well as the people of Kashmir were in favour of integration with India. But Raja Hari Singh was apprehensive that it would communally charged environment in India and Pakistan. Any act of signing the instrument of accession with India would create problems as Pakistan might instigate communal disturbances so Hari Singh took some time to think about it.
Government of India respected the desire of Raja Hari Singh but within this time Pakistan tried to annex Kashmir deceptively. On 22 October 1947 Pakistan pushed a large number of its soldiers into Kashmir disguising them as local tribal militia. By 24th October a significant portion of Kashmir was captured by Pakistani troops.
Raja Hari Singh requested government of India for help but India refused to intervene in Kashmir without signing the instrument of accession. For this Hari Singh needed the support of Sheikh Abdullah the Leader of national conference in Kashmir.
On 26 October 1947 Prime Minister Mehr Chand Mahajan of Kashmir signed the instrument of accession and Raja Hari Singh agreed to reconstitute the government as per the desire of Sheikh Abdullah who was to be appointed as interim Prime Minister
On 27th October Indian forces were airdropped in Kashmir to flush out the Pakistani troops. On 31st October Sheikh Abdullah was sworn in as the interim Prime Minister.
By the end of December 1947 Indian forces liberated about 2/3 of Kashmir from Pakistani soldiers. It was after persuasion of Governor General Lord Mountbatten that India appeal to United Nations for intervention on 1 January 1948. Sheikh Abdullah was not in favour of this believed in Indian forces would liberate Kashmir but as per the scenario government had to go to UN.
But the United Nations could not stand for the rights of Kashmir as it was gripped in the Cold War scenario. It asked Pakistan to remove its forces and directed India to keep the bare minimum forces to maintain law and order. After this a plebiscite was to happen to ask the people whether they wanted to stay in India or in Pakistan. But Pakistan never removed its troops and the plebiscite never happened.

Princes in electoral Politics

Although the merger of princely states to the Indian Union after Independence saw the abolition of princes in the Republic of India, many royal scions continue to enjoy their clout even in the democratic set up following victories in elections.

Princes in Rajasthan:

princes, particularly the ruler of Jodhpur, formed the Ram Rajya Parishad and fielded their own candidates who stood in the first ever Vidhan Sabha and Lok Sabha elections.
Maharaja of Bikaner Dr Karni Singh did not join the Parishad and contested as an Independent and was elected to Lok Sabha on five consecutive times.
Jaipur Maharani Gayatri Devi joined the Swatantra Party (founded by C. Rajagopalachari) after the Ram Rajya Parishad became defunct and garnered support from the erstwhile royals and their nobles. Gayatri Devi’s party broke the monopoly of the Congress and for about 15 years it was a force to reckon with. But the party ultimately lost its sheen because of lack of mass participation and its elite image.
Gayatri Devi ran for Parliament in 1962 and won the constituency in the Lok Sabha in one of the world's largest landslide. She continued to hold this seat on 1967 and 1971 from Swatantra Party. She was arrested during emergency.

Princes of Madhya Pradesh:

Madhav Rao Sindhia and then his son also became active politician.
Vijaya Raje Scindhia married to the Maharajah of Gwalior, Jivajirao Scindhia, She entered in politics in 1962 as a debutant on Congress ticket. However after five years she parted ways with Congress and joined Jan Sangh. During the time of Emergency she went to jail.
Digvijay Singh's father, Balbhadra Singh, was the Raja of Raghogarh (under Gwalior State), presently known as Guna district of Madhya Pradesh and was a former Jana Sangh MP from the Raghogarh constituency.

Princes of Himachal:

royal family of the Kanak Pal dynasty

Though there were many other states with princes playing role in electoral politics, Rajasthan and

Madhya Pradesh clearly dominated. Several successful politicians with royal background are active in Indian politics like Jyotiraditya Scindia, Digvijaya Singh, Chandresh Kumari Katoch (scion of ex-Jodhpur royals), Vasundhara Raje (royal Dholpur family), Captain Amarinder Singh (Patiyala Royal

family) etc.

One Party Dominance

1st Elections

Est of EC 1950 with Sukumar Sen as 1st CEC
Challenges

vast size - 17 crore Eligible voters to elect 3200 MLAs, 489 Members of Lok Sabha
delimitation - drawing of electoral boundaries
preparation of electoral rolls
illiteracy with only 15% of eligible voters being literate
Scepticism across world

India proved the critics wrong with successful completion of election in 1952. It proved that democratic elections can be carried in countries with high illiteracy and poverty

Congress Dominance in 1st 3 General Elections

INC inherited the legacy of National Movement, it won 364 out of 489 seats in the first election. Followed by Communist Party of India which won 16 seats.
Congress won majority In state elections as well except Travancore- Cochin, Madras and Odisha.
dominance of congress continued in the 2nd and 3rd General elections as well- 1957 and 1962
1957 coalition govt led by CPI formed in Kerala.

Nature of congress dominance

dominance not achieved as result of compromise of democratic elections as multiple party candidates contested the elections and the candidate securing majority votes as per first past the post system was declared elected
it was a well organised party and majority leaders of national movement were its members
all inclusive nature of congress - by the time of independence congress developed into a rainbow like social coalition broadly representing India’s diversity in terms of classes and castes, religion, languages and various interests. It accommodates revolutionary, pacifist, conservative, radical, extremist, moderate, right and left - ideological dimensions.
greater tolerance on internal differences and ambitions of various groups

Emergence of Opposition parties

India had always been a multi party country even during era of Congress dominance many parties existed in opposition which Went on to play prominent role in 70s and 80s.
initial representation was minuscule, yet their presence played a crucial role in maintaining democratic character of the country
kept ruling party under check and accountable

When Nehru passed away K Kamraj president of INC consulted party leaders and congress members of parliament to unanimously decide in favour of Lal Bahadur Shastri as the next PM. He led India as PM from 1964 to 66 when he died in a plane crash in Tashkent. 2 major challenges during his years were:

food crises due to failed monsoon
war with Pakistan 1965

His slogan of “Jai Jawan, Jai Kisan” shows country’s resolve to fight both these challenges.

Lal Bahadur Shastri

participated in freedom movt since 1930
member UP cabinet
MoRailways in Nehru cabinet
PM 1964 to 66
slogan Jai jawaan, Jai kisan

Succession of INC after Shastri emerged as a challenge with intense competetion between Indira Gandhi and Morarji Desai. Indira Gandhi was supported by more than 2/3rd of Congress MPs. This marked a peaceful transition of power.

Indira Gandhi

PM 1966 to 77 and 1980 to 84
Min in Shastri Cabinet
slogan garibi hatao
nationalisation of banks, nuclear test, environment protection law
assassinated 1984

Elections 1967

Country was engulfed in food shortage, depletion of foreign exchange reserves, drop in industrial production & exports combined with sharp rise in military expenditure and inversion of resources from planning and economic development
Govt decided to devaluation Indian rupee. This led to a price rise in prices of essential commodities, food scarcity, growing unemployment and overall economic condition pushed people to streets. Opposition parties were in forefront of organising public protests and pressurising the govt. Thus anti congress parties launched a united front against congress and emerged as a dominant opposition force.
Congress did manage to get majority in Lok Sabha, However, the number of seats came to a new low. The congress lost majority in 7 states - Punjab, Haryana, UP, Bihar, MP, Maharashtra, Bengal, Odisha, Madras, Kerala.
A new era of Coalition Politics emerged since in many states no single party got majority various non congress parties came together to form joint legislative parties
Defections also became a new political phenomenon in making- unmaking of govt. It is when an elected representative leaves the party from which he/she was elected and joins the opposition party.

Split in the congress Indira v/S the Syndicate

Syndicate in congress was led by K Kamraj and consisted of prominent congress leaders who were at helm of affairs. They influential within congress and were the ones responsible for making Shashtri and Gandhi as PM.
However, the difference between Indira and syndicate became evident when the leaders expected Indira to follow their advise and She attempted to assert her position within the party and the government. Slowly and carefully she sidelined the syndicate.
She had to deal with the Decrease in congress popularity along with the pressures form the syndicate.
she converted the power struggle with the syndicate into an ideological one and launched a series of govt initiatives giving the policies a leftist orientation. She made the CWC adopt the 10 point programme in 1967 which included social control of banks, nationalisation on General Insurance, ceiling on urban property and income, public distribution of food grains, land reforms and provision of house sites to rural poor.
After death of president Zakir Hussain the differences between Indira and syndicate were evident in nomination for the next president. While the syndicate supported N Sanjeeva Reddy for president Indira encouraged VV Giri.
She launched several big and popular policy measures like nationalisation of 14 pvt banks, abolition of privy purse
While the INC launched a whip to all its MPs to vote in favour of Sanjeeva Reddy, Gandhi silently supported VV Giri and openly called for a Conscience vote I.e. the MPs and MLAs should be free to vote for whoever they want. The victory of VV Giri over Sanjeeva Reddy pushes the congress to split.
Supporters of Indira were called Congress(R) (Requisitionists) and those of the Syndicate as Congress(O) (Organisation).

1971 Elections

Indira Gandhi decided to dissolve the Lok Sabha and called for elections earlier
Indira Gandhi was facing in opposition The Grand Alliance. While her party was already weak after the split it had a clear agenda and goal. The grand alliance did not have a coherent political programme. She launched the famous slogan Garibi Hatao.
She focused on the growth of public sector, imposition of ceiling on rural land holdings and urban property, removal of disparity in income and opportunity and abolition of princely privileges.
Results - Congress CPI alliance won more seats and votes than what congress had ever won since last 4 general elections - 375 seats and secured 48.5% votes.
This was followed by the crisis in East Pakistan and war with Pakistan leading to est of Bangladesh this further increased the prestige of Indira Gandhi. Leaders admired her statesmanship and her popularity was visible in victories in 1972 state elections of congress party.

1970s Emergency and the aftermath

After the 1971 victory congress was not able to fulfil its promise of removing poverty. Bangladesh crisis had strained Indian economy along with which the nation had to deal with influx of refugees, withdrawal of USA food aid. The increase in global oil prices further led to an increase in prices of all commodities to 23% in 1973 & 30% in 1974. This high level of inflation caused hardship to people.

Industrial growth was low and unemployment was high, especially in rural areas. In order to reduce expenditure govt froze the salary of its employees. Failure of monsoon in 1972-73 resulted in sharp decline in agricultural productivity. Food grain output declined by 8%.

This general distress was used by non congress parties in opposition who launched protest movements with increasing student unrest. There was an increase in activities of Marxist groups who didn’t believe in parliamentary democracy and further many such groups had taken up arms and insurgent techniques for overthrow of capitalist order and established political system.

Gujarat and Bihar movements

1974 students in Gujarat started An agitation against rising prices of food grains, cooking oil and other essentials and against corruption. This was joined by major political parties and became widespread leading to imposition of President’s rule in the state. Opposition parties under Morarji Desai who went on fast unto death for holding elections to the state legislature, finally, under pressure from all sections the government held elections in 1975. The congress was defeated in this election.

March 1974, students came together in Bihar to protest against rising prices, food scarcity, unemployment and corruption. They invited Jayprakash narayan to lead the movement. He accepted the invitation on the condition that movement will remain non violent and would not limit itself to Bihar. Thus, the movement assumed a political character and had national appeal. People from all walks of life now entered the movement. Narayan demanded dismissal of congress govt in Bihar and gave a call for total revolution in social, economic and political sphere to establish “true democracy”.A series of bandhs, gheraos, and strikes were organised in protest against Bihar govt, which however, refuse to resign.

The movt was beginning to influence national politics. Alongside JP Narayan‘s agitation, the employees of Railways gave a call for nation wide strike. This threatened to paralyse the country.

In 1975, JP led peoples March to the parliament. He was now supported by non congress opposition parties like Bharatiya Jan Sangh, Congress(O), Bharatiya Lok Dal & others. These projected JP as an alternative to Indira Gandhi. She believed the movt in Bihar and gujarat were motivated by personal opposition to her.

Conflict with the Judiciary

Amending powers of the parliament
amendment of fundamental rights
right to property

Keshavananda Bharati Case 1974 - SC gave the Basic Structure Doctrine under which the parliament through its power to amend the constitution can not amend the basic structure of the constitution.

Emergency 1975

12 June 1975 Allahabad high court declared election of Indira Gandhi to the Lok Sabha as invalid. June 24 partial stay was allowed on the order by SC.

The opposition parties under leadership of JP Narayan pressed for Indira Gandhi’s resignation and organised A massive demonstration in Delhi’s Ramlila ground. JP narayan announced a nationwide satyagraha for her resignation and asked the army, police and govt employees to not obey illegal and immoral orders. This threatened the functioning of the govt.

The govt in turn declared a state of emergency due to internal disturbance under art 352. The proclamation was issued by President Fakhruddin Ahamed on advice of Indira Gandhi. After midnight, the electricity to all major newspaper offices was disconnected. In the morning, a large number of leaders and workers in opposition were arrested. The cabinet was informed of all this the next morning.

Consequences

The agitations were brought to an abrupt stop, strikes were banned, many opposition leaders were put in jail, the political situation became very quiet though tense.
The govt used its emergency powers to suspend freedom of press. Newspaper were asked to get prior approval for all material to be published - press censorship.
Apprehending social and communal disharmony the govt banned RSS & Jamait e Islami.
Fundamental rights remained suspended, including art 32 right to move courts to restore fundamental rights.
Extensive use of preventive detention - arrested political workers, opposition leaders etc. The govt argued that it was not necessary to inform the arrested people reasons for their arrest, while the HC accepted writ of haebeas corpus petetion challengeing detention the SC accepted the govt plea. It meant that during emergency the govt could take away fundamental rights of the citizens.
Acts of dissent and resistance - newspaper like Indian express, Statesman protested against censorship by leaving blank spaces where news items had been censored. Magazines like seminar and Mainstream chose to close down rather than submit to censorship. Authors like Shivaram Karanth and Fanishwarnath Renu returned their Padma Bhushan and Padma Shri.
42 Amendment was brought in which was termed as the Mini Constitution. Amendment was made declaring election of PM, President and Vice President outside judicial review.

Views on Emergency

Investigations by Shah commission found out many excesses during the emergency.

Was declaring the emergency necessary?

Govt argued that in a democracy opposition parties must allow the elected party to rule as per its policies. It felt that frequent recourse to agitations, protests and collective action are not good for democracy. This extra parliamentary politics kept targeting the govt leading to instability and kept distracting the administration from its routine task of ensuring development. Parties like CPI supported the Congress and even believed that these were conspiracies against unity of India.
Critics argued that the right of people to publicly protest against the government was available in Indian democracy. The agitations in Gujarat were mostly peaceful and non violent. Those who were arrested were never tried for any anti national activity & no cases were registered against them. Home ministry itself did not show any discontent at the law and order situation in the country. If some agitations did overstep the boundaries the govt had many routine measures to deal with them rather than imposing emergency. There was no need to suspend democratic functioning and use draconian measures like emergency. The threat was not to the unity and integrity of the nation but to the ruling party and its powers.

Functioning during Emergency

Govt claimed it wanted to restore efficiency, bring law and order and implement pro poor welfare programmes. It announced the 20 point prog and declared its determination to implement this prog which included land reforms, land redistribution, review of agricultural wages, workers participation, eradication of bonded labour etc.
The urban classes initially were satisfied at restoration of law and order, end of protests and agitations. The rural and poor people also expected effective implementation of welfare programmes.
However, most of these promises remained unfulfilled and were meant to divert attention from excesses taking place in name of restoring law and order. Preventive detention was used excessively and around 676 opposition leaders were arrested. Sanjay Gandhi gained control over the administration and interfered in the functioning of the govt. Torture and custodial deaths occurred during emergency, arbitrary relocation of poor and compulsory sterilisation were the most gruesome aspects of the emergency.

Lessons Learnt

Democracy in India was further strengthened with peoples resolve to not susceptible to pressure
constitutional provisions which were misused to implement emergency were rectified by subsequent amendments. The term internal disturbance for proclamation was replaced with armed rebellion and further, emergency could only be proclaimed at written recommendation of the Council of Ministers to the president. Also the Right to life and liberty could not be suspended in case of declaration of emergency.
people understood the value of civil liberties and rights

Aftermath

Congress lost for the 1st time in the next elections 1977 with the opposition parties coming together est the Janata Party under the banner of “Save Democracy” & leadership of JP Narayan. The congress could win only 157 seats securing less than 35% popular votes. It lost every constituency in Bihar, UP, Delhi, Haryana & Punjab, while winning only 1 seat in Rajasthan and MP. Janata party and it’s allies won 330 seats.
Even after losing its majority in North India Congress was able to sweep through South Indian states and performed well in states like Gujarat, Odisha.

Janata Govt

came to power in 1977 was united against congress but had many internal differences. There was competetion among Morarji Desai, Charan Singh & Jagjivan Ram for the post of PM. Morarji Desai was chosen to lead the janata party govt.
lacked direction, leadership and a common prog. It could not bring in any fundamental change in policies from those pursued by congress.
eventually the party split and the govt led by Desai collapsed in less than 18 months. Another govt headed by Charan Singh was formed with assurance of support from congress, however, later the support was withdrawn leading to fall of his govt.
Finally Fresh Lok Sabha elections were held in 1980 in which the Janata Party suffered a comprehensive defeat. The congress was again able to ensure its majority in the Lok Sabha winning 353 seats and once again Indira Gandhi led the govt as PM.

Politics in India had now changed, the congress was seen as an ideological party with a pro poor and socialist base. The issues of welfare measures for the backward castes dominated the politics since 1977. Mandal commission report and reservation for OBCs became controversial.

The emergency and the period has often been identified as that of constitutional and political crisis. However, it was also the period which provided Indian citizens a new insight into power of democracy, importance of fundamental rights and the overall people’s support in govt.

Politics 1990s

Emergence of Coalition politics

defeat of congress in 1989 elections and emergence of National Front govt as a coalition govt
multi party system emerged as several parties emerged in the Indian political scene and no single party secured absolute majority
many powerful parties and movements emerged which represented the Dalit and backward castes and also had powerful regional assertion. Played an imp role in coming of united front govt in 1996

Mandal Issue on report of Mandal commission-
New Economic Policy - LPG reforms and thereafter
Babri Masjid Issue demolition in 1992 - debates on secularism and democratic nature of India “politics of Hindutva” emerged

prise politics based in religious identity brought to fore debate between secularism and democracy
BJP pursued the politics of hindutva and mobilising Hindus
Anti Muslim riots in Godhra Gujarat, 2002

Assassination Of Rajiv Gandhi 1991

Class Notes 4 You