Ancient and Medieval Facts for Mains

Visitors, people - Medieval

• Al-baruni: 10th-11th centuries. Wrote Kitab-ul-hund. 
• Worked-under-mahnud-Ghaznavi
• Wrote-Tahrikh-i-hind
• Amir Khusrao - Sufi mystic, first Urdu language poet, first one to write Ghazal in Urdu. 
• Disciple of Nizamuddin auliya
• Acknowledged for creating Hindustani Khayal
• Created Qawali
• Saw the rule of 7 sultans: Balban, Muhammad, Cakubad, Jalaluddin Khilji, Alauddin Khilji, Mubarak Shah Khaliji, Gaisuddin Tughlaq
• First muslim poet who freely used Hindi words. 
• Called himself Turk-e-hindustani (an Indian turk)
• Abdul Razzaq: Persian travaller. 15th century. Stayed at court of Zamorin (Calicut), vivid account of Vijayanagar empire. 
• Al-masudi-10th-cent-Guarat.Gurjara-Pratiharas
• Sulaiman-Mid-9th-cent.Arab
• Ravidas: Disciple of amananda, contemporary of Kabir. Mirabai was his disciple. Poems included in panchvani of Dadupanthi. Bhakti movement. His conception ‘Begampura’ -  a city that knows no sorrow, class or caste. 
• Guru Nanak: 550th birth aniversary in 2019. Kartarpur corridor opened. 
• His written compositions included in Adi Granth compiled by Guru Arjun. Came to be known Guru Granth Sahib after additions by Guru gobind
• “Preposterous is caste, vain the distinction of birth"
• Respect for women
• Long journeys called ‘Uddasian’ to far off places with 2 companions - Bhai bala (Hindu) and bhai Mardana (Muslim)
• Universal langars - open for all castes, religions etc
• Corridor: From Dera baba nanak village in gurdaspur to darbar sahib in kartarpur. bank of river ravi. 
• Subramaniya Bharathi - Poet, freedom fighter, social reformer, TN. Known as Mahakavi Bharathiyar.
• Kaanan pattu, Panchali Sabatam, Kuyil pattu, Sudesa Geethanga (1908)
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• Hsuan Tseng - during rule of harshavardhana (6th-7th cent)
• Fa-hsein - Chandragupta-ii
• Guru Ravidas: 1377 CE
• mystic poet of Bhakti movement. 
• Disciple of Saint Ramananda.
• Mirabai was his disciple
• Panchvani, Adi granth - earliest sources of his literary works. 
• Begampura - a city that knows no sorrow, no class or caste divides
• Teachings: Omnipresence of God, human soul is a particle of God, 
• Removing caste divides = > Ravidassa religion
• Harappan:
• important Harappan and late Harappan ports were Lothal, Lakhabawal, Kindarkhera, Kuntasi, Megham, Prabhasa, Todio, Amra
• Dara Shikoh:
• Tomb somewhere in Humayun tomb complex
• Translated into Persian, Bhagwad Gita and 52 Upanishads. 
• Mention in Shahjahannama
• Italian traveller Niccolao Manucci - graphic description of his tomb in Travels Of Manucci
• Ajatashatru (son on Bimbisara) and Makkhali Gosala (founder of Ajivika’s path) were contemporaries of Buddha and Mahavira. Bimbisara_too_contemp_of_both._Haryanka_dynasty
• Marakkars: a clan, were naval chieftains of Zamorin of calicut, during 16th and 17th cent. 
• Mostly muslim, but some were Hindu. 
• Fought against Porteguse invaders for nearly a century. Guerilla warfare. used small slips to surround Porteguese ships. 
• Word associations: Kottakal fort. Kunjali title. 
• Satnami sect: Founded by Birbhan, 1657, in Narnaul in Haryana. 
• Militant sect of Hindu worshippers
• chant ’true names’ of god, Rama and Krishna
• Offshoot of Ravidasi sect
• Religious Granth - Pothi
• Followers - Mundiyas
• Rebellion: In 1672, rebelled against mighty Mughal empire. Crushed when Aurangzeb took personal command
• Purandara dasa/Srinivasa Nayaka - pioneer of carnatic music (by combining Aryan and Dravida forms). A saint, Haridasa, devotee of Krishna. 1484-1564. Disciple of Madhwa saint Vyasatirtha. Contemporary of Haridasa saint Kanakadasa. 
• Carnatic music exercies - Sravahali, Alankar
• Introduced raga Mayamalavagowla. 
• Composed Gitas for novice students
• Bhakti vocalist, Composed Dasa Sahitya
• Reforms: Social reform movements, preached in local Kannada, complete self-surrender to Krishna, Madhava philosophy of Vaishnavism (realistic-pluralistic), songs against casteism, equal men and women. Born: hampi, ktk or Keshavapura in Shimoga distt
• Farid-ud-din:disciple-of-Sheikh-Moinuddin

• Bidar:Barid-shahi
• Berar-Bahmani-dynasty.Then-Imad-shahi.5-independent-kingdoms-under-bahmani:
• Ahmednagar was one of them, known as Nizamshahi.
• Adil-shahi-Bijapur
• Qutb-shahi-Hyderabad,1594
• Bijapur:Indo-saracenic-art
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Travellers:

• MEgasthenes:
• Indica
• Chandragupta maurya
• Indians in 7 castes
• Account of Mauryan capital Pataliputra

Mughals:

• At first there was only one rank (mansab). From the fortieth year of Akbar (1594;95), the ranks were divided into two-zat and sawar.
• Below-500:mansabdar
• 500-2500:amir
• >2500:amir-i-umda
• Char-bagh-system:
• Babur-introduced
• Babur built many mosques at important sites of his victory
• Deccan:
• 1636:treaties-with-Bijapur,Golconda-under-ShahJahan
•  Adil Shah accepted the Mughal suzerainty
• Jehangir-no-addition-to-Mughal-territory-in-deccan
• Akbar:to-check-Porteguese-tthreat
• Nobility in Sher Shah's court were drawn almost exclusively from the Afghans.
• Introduced-new copper coins called 'Dam'
• Amalguzar-assessment,collection-of-land-revenue
• Mir saman was in charge of the imperial household
• uniform tax was levied on goods at the point of their entry into the empire
• Road cess or rahadari was declared illegal
• Minted-silver rupees of high purity which became a standard coin
• borrowed the system of using coins in three metals from Sher Shah Sure
• Jehangir-coins-of-large-size
• Aurangzeb:removed-system-of-inscribing-Kalima-on-coins.Coins were standardized 
• No-radical-change-in-agri-technology
• Akbar-first-used-metal cylinder rockets against war elephants in-Battle-of-Sambal
• Rose-scent and the use of saltpetre for water-cooling were entirely new discoveries(ABul-Fazl)

Delhi-Sultanate:

• Iqta(Muqti/wali)->Shiq->Pargana(amil)
• Khut,muqaddam:village-headmen
• Diwan-i-ariz:Military.Balban
• Diwan-i-riyasat-controlling-markets.Alaudin-Khilji
• Diwan-i-Kohi-Agri.Mohammad-tughlaq
• Diwan-i-Khirat-charity.Firoz-shah-Tughlaq
• Iqtadari-system:Iltutmish
• wakil-i-dar-royal-household
• Diwan-i-Arz was responsible for maintaining the huliya under the Delhi Sultanate (Mir-bakshi-maintaining-chehra-under-mughals)
• Barid-i-Mumalik-convey-news-of-provinces(Mir Bakhshi through provincial Bakhshis under the Mughals.)
• Iltutmish:first to introduce coins in three metals i.e. gold and silver tankas and copper jitals.
• Lodi:
• Sikander,Ibrahim:turf-wth-amirs
• tughlaq:
• Mohammad-bin-tughlaq:
• Timur-invasion.1398-AD
• clashed with Muslim theologians and the Sufi saints 
• Firoz:
• policies to please theologians and allowed them to dictate state policies.
•  jagirdars became very powerful

CG-2's-9-navaratna:

Marathas:

• Wagenavis:Intelligence,post,household-affairs
• Majumdar-Accountant
• Mirasdar-hereditary-landowner
• Surunavis/Chitnis-correspondence
• Shivaji-attention-to-measurements
• Replaced-rope-with-Measuring-rod(Kathi)

Rashtrakutas:

• Downfall
• 972AD.Paramara-king-Harsh-attacked-during-Amoghavarsha.Capital-Manyakhta-attacked.A-reason-for-downfall
• Antagonization-of-allies-like-Kalachuris-by-Krishna-3

Chola:

• Decentralization
•  affairs of the village were managed by an executive committee to which educated persons owning property.Elected
• Tank-committee:distribution-of-water
• Saiva Siddhanta was founded during Chola period.
• Text-Sivagnana Bodham,by Meikandar

Vijayanagar:

• Amara-nayaka-system
• military commanders were given lands to govern on which, among other things, their function was to collect dues from temples for their repair and maintenance.

Rulers:

• Allaudin:
• Munhiyans-spies
• Mohammad-bin-Tughlaq:
• 4) He raised taxes in the doab to prohibitively high level which caused great suffering to peasants of the region. However, when he realized his mistake, he took steps to ameliorate their sufferings.
• Taccavi-loans
• Diwan-i-Kohi
• CApital-from-Dehi-to-devagiri.
• Only-well-educated-sultan
• Introduced-token-currency-system
• Khajli's-system-of-paying-soldiers-in-cash
• Writers: Isami, Barani, Ibn Battuta, 
• Feroz Shah Tughluq - Born 1309. Succeeded Muhammad bin tughlaq. 3rd ruler of tughlaq dynasty. 
• One who started Jaziya
• Principle of inheritence to armed forces. 
• Father of the irrigation department
• Establishments:
• Diwan- i- khairat - charity
• Diwan-i-Bundagan - Dept of slave
• Sarais, for travellers
• Iqtadari framework
• Towns - Hissar, Jaunpur, Ferozabad, FAtehabad
• Darul-shifa, Bimaristan- hospitals
• Zakat, Kharaj, Kham - taxes
• Iltutmish - introduced arabic coinage to India. Silver tankas 
• Ashoka:
• Inscriptions outside India: Nigalisagar (Nepal) and Rummindei (Nepal).
• Rock edicts outside India:  Kandahar (Afghanistan), Mansehra, Shahbazgari (Pakistan)
• Name ashoka mentioned only on 4 edicts - 3 in ktk and 1 MP. 
• Capitals:
• Sarnath  - Lion Capital, 250 BC
• Sanchi  - Lion Capital similar to Sarnath. Slight difference - Abacus adorned with flame palmettes and facing geese. 250 BC
• Rampurva - Bull Capital. Mixture of Indian, persian elements. 
• Didarganj Yakshi - finest example of mauryan art. Some historians call it characteristically Kushan. 
• Maski inscription: first with name Ashoka instead of ‘devanampiyadassi’. Maski town, banks of Maski river (tri of TUngabhadra)
• Amoghavarsha: Rashtrakuta ruler. Religion and lit over war. Wrote Kavirajmarga, earliest kannada book in poetry. Prashnaottara Ratnamalika in Sanskrit. Capital city at Manyakhet. Indian mathematicial Mahaviracharya during his time. 
• Cholas:
• Prevalent currency - Kalanju
• Centre of power: Uraiyur, cotton trade
• Pandya:
• Megansthenes: Matriarchal
• Madurai was capital
• Sent embassies to Roman emperor Augustus
• Shivaji:
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• Battle of Singhagad - 1670 between Marathas and Mughals (along with Rajputs) for fort Singhagad. In 1665’s Treaty of Purandhar b/w Shivaji and Jai singh, fort Kandhana was given by Marathas to Mughals. 
• Shivaji entrusted Taanaji Malusare to recover the fort in the battle. Taanaji fought against Rajput warrior Udaybhan Rathore, died. Later, Maraths fought under leadership of his brother Suryaji Malusare and vanquished the enemy. 
• Vakataka:
• 3rd-5th centuries. From Malwa in North to Tungabhadra in South. Successors of satavahana (cotemporaries of Gupta)
• Nagardhan - capital 
• Shaivites.
• Worshipped elephant god
• Rock-cut Viharas and Chaityas of Ajanta Caves - built under Vakataka ruler, Harishena.
• Queen Prabhavatigupta - a princess of Gupta dynasty, married to Vakataka King Rudrasena II. 
• A new oval shaped seal traced from Nagardhan. Brahmi script, sign of Vaishnava affiliation to Guptas. First time clay sealings found at Nagardhan. Copperpplate inscriptions mentioning queen Brabhavati’s grandfather as Samudragupta, and father CG-2
• Traded with Iran and beyond through the Medi. sea
• Kanishka:
• Mahayana Buddhism
• Ashvaghosa (buddhist philosopher, wrote Buddhacharita) adorned his court
• Sakas:
• Satrap system started
• Vijayanagar:
• Nagakal, Virakal, Satikal sculptures. 
• Lit:
• Telugu work Rayavachakamu gives interesting details about the Nayak system under Krishnadevaraya
• Kannada and Telugu literature, like Manucharitram, Saluvabhyudayam, etc., patronized in the Vijayanagar cour
• Pallava:
• Narsimhvarman1:
• Greatest. Son of Mahendravarman. 
• Called Vatapikonda - defeated Pulakesin II in 642 AD, took control of Chalukyan capital, Vatapi. 
• Vanquished Cholas, Chera, Pandya
• Expedition to Sri Lanka, Reinstated king Manivarma
• Founded city of Mamallapuram
• Hsuan tsang visited (640), describes people as happy, agri abundant
• Great Nayannar saints like Appar, Tirugnanasambandar and Siruthondar lived during his reign. Hsuan Tsang visited
• Son Mahendravarman II
• Kasakudi copper plates - conquest of Sri Lanka
• Literary: Sivagamin Sambandhan - by Kalki
• Mahendravarman 1: Chitrakarapuli (tiger among artists), chaityakari
• Mandagapattu-inscription
• Rajsimhavarman - Kanchipuram temple. Shore temple at Mahabalipura. Also called Narsimhvarman II
• Thirumalapuram caves, Jain caves at Sitanavassal
• Satavahanas: 3rd cent BC- 2nd cent AD.
• Founder - Simuka
• March of triumphant brahmanism. But also patronized Buddhism.
• Official lang - Prakrit. Sanskrit also used
• Karle chaitya (Mh), Amaravati and Nagarjunakonda stupas.
• Karle - largest chaitya-griha in India
• Huge lion pillar. kanheri is only other in Mumbai with this design
• Octagone shaped pillars without design
• All inscriptions in Prakrit, wrtten in Brahmi. Gathasaptasati - Prakrit text  attributed to ssatavahan king Hala.
• South India’s early sanskrit inscription discovered in Chebrolu village, AP. Of Saptamatrika cult. Issued by Satavahana king Vijaya, in 207 AD. Another inscription in Prakrit at the same place, dated 1st cent AD
• Capitals: Pratishthan (Paithan), Amaravati (Dharanikota)
• Sources of history - Puranas. Nasik and nandedgarh inscriptions
• Hala - 17th king. Famous forhis book GAthasaptasati/Sattasai, written in PRakrit
• Vashishtaputra pulamayi - repaired Amaravathi stupa
• Notable NAgarjunakonda archi
• Mughals:
• Bibi ka maqbara  (aurangabad), Badshahi mosque (red sandstone, marble inlay and domes) - Aurangzeb
• Shah Jahan:
• Red fort
• Shalimar bagh
• CApital from Agra to Delhi. Shahjahanabad
• PEacock throne
• Delhi sultanate used Arabesque while mughals used pietra dura
• Pre-Mughal:
• Sloping walls/batter - Tughlaq

Places:

• Vikramshila university - Founded by Dharampala
• Udayagiri caves - During Guptas
• Kanheri caves - Mh
• Gautamiputra satakarni’s name mentioned in inscriptions here
• lion pillar
• Podhis for rainwater harvesting
• Bhaja, Pune - Wooden-ceiling chaitya. 
• Hinayana faith
• Pandavlani chaitya, Mh: Financed by gautamiputra’s mother. Panel depicting mahaparinirbana
• Guntapalli - Largest brick chaitya
• Sita marhi- Nagarjuni, Bihar
• Red fort - Mughal era parts recently renovated. Has Diwan-i-khas, Zafar meal, Mumta mahal, khas mahal, rang mahal, Pearl mosque etc. 
• About red fort - built as palace fort of Shahjahanabad, during Shah Jahan’s reign. Built in 1638. 
• Markandeshwar temple - Maharashtra. Khajuraho of Vidharba. 
• Banks of river Wainganga. 9th-12th century
• Nagara style. Saiva, Vaishnavi and sakta faith
• Shawala teja singh temple: Ancient hindu temple, dedicated to lord Shiva. 1000 yr old/
• Was sealed for last 72 years. In Pakistan. Recently re-opened
• Ekambaranathar temple - Kanchipuram, TN. Dedicated to Shiva. Pallava, Cholas kings. 
• Markandeshwar temple - Maharashtra - “Khajuraho of Vidharba” . Bank of Wainganga. Belongs to Saiva, Vaishnava and Sakta faiths. Belongs to Nagara group of North. 9th-12th cent CE
• Mamallapuram, Pallava dynasty (Imp as location for 2nd Wuhan Summit)
• Earliest recorded security pact between India and China - 8th century - involved Pallava king Narsimham Varma II
• Hsuin Tsang visited Pallava capital Kanchipuram, during Narsimh-1’s reign. 
• narsimh-II sent a mission to Tang court in 720 AD
• Descent of Ganga/Arjuna’s penance - commissioned by Narsimh-1
• Pattadakalu, Ktk - UNESCO world heritage site. 7th-8th century Hindu and Jain temple complex. Banks of Malaprabha. 10 temples - 4 in Nagara, 6 in Dravida style. Virupaksa, Sangameshwara - Dravida. Papanatha- Nagara. Chalukyan temple. (Known for Vesara)
• Monastries:
• kardang - Lahaul
• Tabo - Spiti
• Rumtek - Sikkim
• Nalanda- Built by Kumaragupta - 5th cent Ce,as per records of Xuan Zang
• Heavy dependence on Buddhist Gupta art of Sarnath. 
• Dashavatara Temple - Deogarh, UP. 6th century. Late Gupta. Famous sculpture of Vishnu reclining on serpant Sheshnag. 3 main reliefs of Vishnu on temple walls: Sheshashayana on South, Nar NArayana on east, Gajendramoksha on west.Panchayatana style of architecture.
• On betwa river, near matatila/rajghat reservoir. 
• at MP-UP border
• Madurai school - Nayakas, 16th-18th century. Meenakshu temple, Maduai 
• Ranganathaswamy temple, Srirangam - Tallest gopuram in world. Raja Gopuram. Vaishnavite. Origins - 1st cent CE, early cholas. Mallikarjun Mandapam. Hall of 1000 pillrs. Water harvesting systems. Fresca and mural paintings. 8 enclosures
• Gupta architecture:
• No influence of Gandhara style on Gupta architecture. 
• GUpta-admn:
• Land under cultivation- Kshetra,
• Khila -uncultivable land,
• Aprahata was the jungle or forest land,
• Gopata Sarah was the pasture land
• Vasti was the habitable land
• Amaravati, Nagarjunakonda- patronized by Satavahanas, and their successors Ikshvakus
• amaratavati made excessive use of Tribhanga
• Brihadishvara temple: Built by Rajaraja Chola 1 (985-1015 CE).
• Banks of KAveri
• As per hindu customs, Kumbhabhishekam to be done once in 12 yrs. So far, held only 5 times in 1010, 1729, 1843, 1980 and 1997. 
• Called Dhaksina meru (meru of south)
• Part of “Great living Chola temples’ -a UNESCO WHS.
• Kumbhabishekam recently held (Feb 2020) after 23 yrs, after old argument of Sanskrit vs Tamil recital settled by MAdras HC 
• Its vimana tower, built of granite, one of tallest in South India
• two layrs of paintings found. Upper layer - Nayak period, lower - Chola. Chola- shiva, patron rajaraja, his mentor Kuruvar, dancing figures.
• First all granite temple in world. 
• Konark sun temple - 13th cent, Orissa. Built by King Narsimhdeva 1, Ganga dynasty. Black pagoda
• Included in UNESCO world heritage site in 1984
• Also called black pagoda. Jagannath - white pagoda. 
• Pilgrimage site for Hindus. Chandrabhaga mela
• 12 pairs of wheels
• Martand Sun temple - J&K, built by Karkota dynasty. 
• Humayun’s Tomb: First garden tomb of Indian subcontinent. Built 1570
• Commissioned by first wife Bega Begam (Haji Begam)
• A charbagh, UNESCO WH site
• Red sandstone and marble
• Akbar’s tomb - Commissioned by Akbar himself, completed by Jehangir. Red sandstone and marble
• Akbar:
• Introduced tudor arch - 4 centred arch
• Mostly red sandstone
• Buland darwarza - victory over gujarat. Highest gateway in world
• Panch mahal, Pachisi court, Hiran Minar (Hiran was an elephant)
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• Raghvendraswami temple - Andhra PRadesh, Nagvasuki - UP, Kanvashram - Uk
• Hazardwari palance - WB
• Shivsagar - Assam. Adichanallur - TN (on site musuems, assnounced in Budget)
• Vaigai valley civilization: Unearthed during excavations at Keeladi, Sivaganga distt of TN. 2nd urbanization (1st - Indus valley) of Vaigai plains happened in TNb/w 6th cent BC and 1st cent AD. Sangam age. Tamil-Brahmi script, dated 580 BC. 
• Urban civilization existed in Keeladi during Sangam age
• Literacy in 6th cent BC
• Agrarian society, high stds of living
• Golden ornaments found. Copper found. Black and redware
• Sanchi: Also called kakanaya, kakanadabota, Bota Sriparvata in ancient times. Stupas, monolithic ashokan pillar, temples, monasteries, and sculptures dating 3rd cent BC to 12th cent AD
• Sunga times - several edifices raised
• 1st cent bC - Andhra satavahanas - lavishly carved gateway of stupa-1
• 2nd-4th AD: Kushanas and Kshatrapas
• Guptas - temples and sculptures added
• Great Stupa - largest stupa. 100 AD
• Lack of human form images of Buddha. Shown symbolically in inanimate objects
• Stupas - burial mounds. Reached climax during Ashoka. Inner ade of unburnt bricks, out of burnt bricks, covered with Plaster.
• Although a vedic tradition, popularized by Buddhism
• 9 stupas erected after death of Buddha. 8 his parts, 9th the pot in which parts were kept
• Rajagriha, Vaishali, Kapilavastu, Allakappa, Ramagrama, Vethapida, Pava, Kushinagar and Pippalivana.
• Pipawra, UP - Oldest
• Bairat, Rajasthan - Grand stupa with circular mound and circumambulatory path 
• Chaukhandi stupa- UP, Sarnath. originally thought to be built as a terached temple during Gupta age. Monument of national importance by ASI. 
• Originally thought to be built by Ashoka
• Octagonal tower by Humayun in 1588
• lofty brick structure
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• Hoysala temples - Mysore. 12-13th cent
• Somnathpur (Kesava temple- Vishnu temple, Narasimha-III, 13th cent. Panchalinga temple - Shaivite), belur, Halebid
• vegetal and floral carvings
• Heavily carved- animals, denizens, more than life sized gods, goddesses with rich ornaments. 
• At somanatha - Purahara, Narasimhesvara, Murahara, Lakshminarasimha and Yoganarayana temples - have disappereared now, but mentioned in texts
• Chola:
• Chidambaram: Gopuram has Bharatnatyam pose sculptures.
• Parantaka:900AD,
• Maduraikonda-capturer-of-Pandyan-country-Madurai
• Khajuraho:
• Built of sandstone from quarries of Panna
• Panchayatana
• Kandariya Mahadev, Mahadev, Devi jagdamba, Chitragupta, Vishwanath, Parvati, lakshamana/Chaturbhuja, Varaha, Chauntsat Yogini (dedicated to 64 yoginis, mae entirely of granite)
• South-East of Khajuraho: Parsvanath and Ghantai jain temples
• Kangra fort - one of the oldest forts of India. Alexander’s war records of 4th cent BC record this temple. Richly carved temples with idols embossed in walls. 
• Caves:
• Ellora: 
• Kailasa temple - Krishna 1 (Rashtrakuta)
• Vishnu wakankar - discovered Bhimbetka in 1957
• First discovery of rock at - 1867 - Archibald carllyle (ASI) - in sandstone hills of Mizapur (UP), Vindhyas. 12 yrs before discovery of Altamira in Spain
• Elephanta - basaltic rocks. 5 hindu, 2 budhist
• Bagh - bank of Baghani river. 4th-6th cent AD. Buddhist monk Dataka
• Barabar - mauryan times. Ashoka 
• Ajeevika sect initially. 4 caves belonging to Ashoka and his grandson dasarata’s period
• Lomus rishi, Sudama, Karan Chaupar, Visva jopri
• Nagarjuni caves - Bihar. during Ashoka’s grandson Dasharath. bear inscriptions of ashoka and dasrath. Dasarath dedicated them to ajivika sect
• Rangdum monastery - Tibetan-buddhist monastery. Gelugpa sect. Suru valley, Ladakh. Ner Pensi la, which leads to Zanskar.
• Gelugpa sect - founded by Tsongkhapa. Headed by Dalai lama. Was inspired by Madhyamika teachings of Nagarjuna. Regarded as manifstation of Bodhisatttva of wisdom, Jampelyan (Manjushri). 
• Ganden monastry - by followers of Tsonghapa, in Netang near Lhasa in 1409
• Vithala temple - VIshnu. South bank of Tungabhadra. Stone chariot of GAruda, by Krishnadevaraya -a World heritage site
• Padmanabhaswamy temple - Kerela. Chera and dravida architectural styles. Lord Vishnu in eternal yogic sheshnag posture.
• Durga temple, Aihole - Panchayatana style

UNESCO WHSs: 38 in India. 30 cultural, 7 natural, 1 mixed

• Agra fort, 1983: 16th cent Mughal. Red sandstone. COmprises Jehangir palace, and Khas mahal, built by Shah Jahan. Audience halls, diwan-i-khas
• Ajanta caves, 1983: Sahyadri range. Waghora river near Aurangabad. 29 caves, all buddhist. 200 BC-650 AD. Patronage of Vakataka kings, esp Harishena. Fa-Hen and Hsuin Tsang mention
• Fresco paintings. Outline in red. Absence of blue
• Nalanda Mahavira, Bihar, 2016: Monastic insttn of 3rd BC-13th cent AD. Stupas, shrines, viharas. Stuccos, stones, metal. Most ancient univ of Indian subcontinent
• Buddhist monuments, Sanchi 1989: Monolithic pillars, palaces, temples. Oldest buddhist sanctuary in India. 2nd-1st cent BC.
• Champaner Pavagarh Arch site, 2004: Chalcolithic site. 8th-14th cent Installatations. early Hindu capital of Guj. Only complete and unchanged Islamic pre-mughal city. Kalikata mata temple
• Chhatrapati Shivai/Victoria terminal 2004: Victorian gothic revival architecture. 1878. Stone domes, turrets, pointed arches, eccentral ground plan
• Goa churches, 1986: well known for spreading- Manueline, Mannerist and Baroque art in major parts of Asia. Basilica of Bom jesus houses tomb of St Francis Xavier. 
• Elephanta caves, 1987: Island of Gharapuri in Sea of Oman, close to Mumbai. Near Thane creek. Shaivite rock art. 5th-6th cent AD.
• 7 m sadashiva sculpture. Cave 1. Represents creator (Aghora/Bhairava) , preserver (Tatpurusha/Mahadev) and destroyer (Vamadeva/Uma) aspects of Shiva. 
• Representations of Nataraja, Yogishvara, Andhakasuravadha, Ardhanarishwara, Kalyanasundaramurti, Gangadharamurti, and Ravanaanugrahamurti are also noteworthy
• Monolithic temple caves
•  Elephanta Island possesses archaeological remains from as early as the 2nd century BC and from the Portuguese period
• Ellora, 1983: Most famous - Kailasnath cave (no. 16)
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• Fatehpur Sikri, 1986: 16th cent second half. Akbar. City of victory. One of largest mosques of India - jama masjid. Temples and monuments. 
• Great living Chola temple, 1984, 2004. 3 temples - Brihadisvara at Thanjavur (rajaraja 1. Entirely of Granite. Apex structure at top is monolothic. Vimana does not caste a shadow at noon during any part of the year. Vimana - stepped pyramid), Birhadisvara (yes, same name) at Gandaikondacholapuram (Rajendra 1. Bronze sculpturs of Bhogasakti and Subrahmanya), and Airatesvara at Darusaram (Rajaraja 2. Much smaller in size. Sanctum without a circum-ambulatory path. Conceptualied as a chariot with wheels). The latter two feature Vimana of 53m and 23m resp.
• . Sekizhar's Periyapuranam is the twelfth thirumurai of the Saiva canon.-during-Chola.
• Kamba Ramayanam -chola
• Hampi monuments, 1986: Last capital of Vijaynagar. 14th-16th cent
• Mahabalipuram monuments, 1984: Pallava kings, 7th-8th cent. Coromandel coast. Rathas, Mandapas, Descent of the Gangas. Encloses temple of Rivage, with thousands of sculptures dedicated to Shiva
• 3 shrines - unusual for a temple. two of shiva - one facing east, other west. Middle - Vishnu as Anantashayana . 
• Shore temple built later around 700-730 AD during Narasimhavaraman-II (rajasimha)
• Pattadakal monuments, 1987: Ktk, 7th-8th cent, Chalukyan. Blend of North and South. 9 hindu temples, a jain sanctuary. Temple of Virupaksa by Queen Lokamahadevi in 740 CE. 
• Hill forts, Raj -2013: 6 majestic forts - Chittorgarh, kumbhalgarh, Sawai Madhopur, Jaisalmer, Jaipur, Jhalawar. 8th-18th cent. 
• Ahmedabad historic city, 2017: Eastern bank of Sabarmati. Sultan Ahmad shah, 15th cent. Served as capital of Guj. Testimony to harmonious existence of diverse religions. Famous Bhadra citadel. Numerous Hindu and Jain temples
• Urban fabric: Densely packed traditional houses (pols) in gated traditional streets (puras)
• Humayun’s tomb, Delhi, 1993: 1570, first garden tomb of India. Inspiration behind Taj Mahal
• Jaipur city, 2019: Grid plan-based archi, buildings constructed with a pink facade. 
• Founded in 1727 by Sawai Jai singh II, Kachchwaha rajput ruler of Jaipur
• Estb on plains
• exchange b/w ancient Hindu, modern Mughal, western cultures
• Govind dev temple, city palace, jantar Mantar, Hawa Mahal
• Intangible heritage promotion project. UNESCO and Raj. Will directly benefit 1500 artist in folk music and handicrafts.
• Khajuraho monuments, 1986: Chandella dynasty, 950-1050. Only 20 temples remain. Hindu, Jain
• Mahabodhi temple complex, Bodh Gaya, 2002: Emperor Ashoka, 3rd cent BC. Present structure: 5th-6th cent CE. One of the 4 sacred sites of Gautam Buddha. One of the earliest Buddhist temples built entirely in brick
• Mountain Railways (1999, 2005, 2008): Darjeeling-1890s, Nilgiri-1908 (built b/w 1891-1908) and Kalka-1903
• Qutub Minar and its monuments, Delhi (1993): Red sandstone, early 13th cent. 72.5 m high. Alai darwara -1311. Two mosques, including Quwwat-ul-Islam, Oldest mosque of N. India. (Qutub minar - Qutubuddin Aibak, iltutmish.  Firoz shah built a 5th storey later, in marble. 
• Rani ki vav, at Patan, Guj (2014): Bank of Saraswati. MAra-Gurjara Archi style. Inverted temple, to emphasize sanctity of water.  More than thousand sculptures depicting a combination of religious, mythological and secular imagery. Stepwells have been built in India since 3rd cent BC. 
• Red fort Complex (2007): Fort palace of Shahjahanabad. Red sandstone walls. Includes the Red Fort as well as Salimgarh fort built-in 1546 by Islam Shah Suri. Continuous water channel Nahr-i-Behisht. Combi of Persian, Timurid, Hindu traditions
• Bhimetka rock shelters (2003): Vindhya foothills, southern edge of Central India plateau. Mesolithic and succeeding periods. 5 clusters of natural rock shelters. 
• Sun temple, Konark, 1984: 13th cent by King narsimhdev 1 of Ganga Empire. BRahmanism and tantric belief system. profuse and intricate sculptural work. Highest pt of Kalinga archi. 2 rows of 12 wheels, 7 horses. Black padoga.
• Cult of Surya originated in Kashmir during 8th cent.
• Taj Mahal, 1983
• Le-corbusier’s archi work (2016): Transnational, includes 17 sites across 7 countries. Propagate ideals of modern movement. Complexe du Capitole, Chandigarh, The Museum of Western Art in Tokyo (Japan), the House of Dr Curutchet in La Plata (Argentina), Unité d’habitation in Marseille (France) etc
• Jantar Mantar, Jaipur (2010): Early 18th cent.
• Victorian Gothic, Mumbai (2018): Neo-gothic style of 19th cent and art deco style of 20th cent. Endowed with balconies and verandas.

Natural: 

• Great Himalayan NP (2014): HP. A biodiversity hotspot with 25 types of forests. 
• Kaziranga NP (1985): NP in 1974, tiger reserve in 2007. Imp bird area. Home to 9 of the 14 species of primates in India. NH 37. Diphlu river. 
• 2nd wetland bird count conducted in 2020. First in 2018. 19k birds belonging to 96 species. Covered 4 ranges- Agaratoli, Bagori, Kuhara, Burapahar. Sohana - largest wetland
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• KEoladeo (1985): Raj. wintering ground to Palaearctic migratory waterfowl, critically endangered Siberian Crane as well as to globally threatened- Greater Spotted Eagle and Imperial Eagle. Resident popn of non-migratory breeding birds. 
• Manas (1985): Manas river. 
• Nanda devi and Valley of flowers (1988, 2005): Uk. Nanda devi - rugged and high-mountain wilderness, India’s second highest mountain peak - Nanda devi. Valley of flowers - aesthetically pleading meadows of alpine flowers. Snow leopard, Himalayan musk deer. 
• Sunderbans 1987
• Western Ghats 2012
• Khandchenzonga (2016) - mixed site. World’s 3rd highest peak. Steep sided vallyes, snow-lad mountains, various glaciers, rivers. Zemu glacier. Covers 25% of Sikkim
• Beyul/hidden sacred land: tibetan Buddhism. Thongen monastery
• practises of Lepcha tribe

World Heritage Committee of UNESCO: composed of representatives of 21 state parties. Meet annually. In charge of implementing the convention. 

India has 37 sites: 29 cultural, 7 natural, 1 mixed. India -2nd after.  China in Asia pacific in terms of number of sites. (China and italy - have 55 sites each, max in world. Then Spain - 48) 

Biosphere reserves - 18. 11 are internationally designated, 7 domestic. 

Junagadh-rock-inscription:inscriptions of Ashoka, Rudradaman I and Skandagupta.

• Brahmi..Sanskrit
• restoration work of a reservoir named "Sudarshana Lake" which was built by the great Mauryan Ruler Chandragupta Maurya 
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Paintings:

• Paitkar - scroll paintings, jharkhand. Bengali goddess Ma manasa. Palm leaves. Now confined to Amabudi village. common subject - what happens to human life after death. variable of pata painting (patachitra, orissa)
• Pattachitra - Orissa. Canvas paintings. Mostly mythological. Themes: Thia badhia (jagannath temple), Krishna lila, Dasabatara (vishnu’s incarnations), Panchamukhi (ganesha as 5 headed deity)

Literature:

• Prabandhas - Alvars
• Dravida vedas/Tevaram strotas- nayanars
• Ashtadhyayi - Sanskrit treatise on Grammar - 5th-6th Cent BC - Panini. 
• Mahabhashya - Patanjali. Commentary on sanskrit grammar. 2nd-3rd cent BC
• Patanjali was the rajpurohit  of Pushyamitra Shunga
• Vartika- Katyayana. Elaboration on Panini’s grammar. 2nd cent BC
• Lord Krishna:
• Chandogya upanishad: About his childhood for first time
• Yoga - first mentioned in Rigveda
• Ramcharitmanas - Tulsidas. 
• Pancvani - includes sayings of 5 saints, put together by followers of Dadu Dayal/Dadu Panth. Saints - Kabir, Ravidasa
• Bijak - writings of Kabir only. One of earliest texts in Modern Beghali
• Vedas, Puranas etc:
• Aitreya Brahmana - describes daughter as a source of misery
• ’satyameva jayate’ - Taken from ancient Indian scripture, Mundaka
• There are 6 vedangas (limbs of the Vedas):
• Siksha (Study of sound)
• Chhanda (Mastery of rhyme and meter)
• Vyakarana (Grammar)
• Jyotisha (astrology)
• Nirukta (complex words and phrases)
• Kalpa (ethical, moral precepts)
• Vachana Sahitya - Form of Rhythmic writing in Kannada. 11th-12th CE, as part of Lingayat movement. 
• Lingayat/Virashaiva movement: Basavanna
• 12th cent Ktk, reign of Kalachuya kings
• A kind of militant movement
• Basavanna with companions Allamaprabhu, Akkamaha devi.
• was the first Kannadiga in whose honour a commemorative coin has been minted in recognition of his social reforms.
• Anubhava Mantapa: (Hall of spiritual experience) - public institution founded by Basavanna - welcome men and women from all socio-economic backgrounds.
• known for introducing the Ishtalinga (a necklace with a pendant that contains a small Shiva Linga).
• Lilavati-Bhaskara-II,12th-cent
• Ganitasarasamgraha of Viracharya-during-Amoghavarsha-1
• Kadambari, Harshcharita - Banabhatta
• Priyadarshika, nagananda, ratnavali - Harshavardhana (all sanskrit) 
• Ratnavali - Daughter of Sinhala, and king udayana of kaushambhi. First reference to Holi
• Nagananda -  Jimutavahana's (Kin of Vidhyadhara) self-sacrifice to save the Nagas. Invocation of lord buddha in Nandi verse
• Bhakshali manuscript - mention of zero. (3rd-4th cent BC)
• South India’s early sanskrit inscription discovered in Chebrolu village, AP. Of Saptamatrika cult. Issued by Satavahana king Vijaya, in 207 AD. Another inscription in Prakrit at the same place, dated 1st cent AD
• Saptamatrika - group of 7 female gods
• Satavahana (Andhra) history - Sources:
• Puranas
• Nasik, Nanagarh inscriptions
• Founder - Simuka
• Patronized buddhism and Brahmanism
• Harappans - first in India to develop writing. 
• Swapnavasavadattam - Romantic tale of Vatsa (one of the 16 mahajanapadas, capital Kausambhi) king Udayana and Vasavadatta (daughter of Avanti King Pradyota)
• Prashnottara Ratnamalika - Adi Shankaracharya
• Ashtangasamgraha - by Vagbhata. Summary of 8 branches of medicine. Gupta period. (Charaka and sushruta lived before Gupta age)
• Vasudaiva Kutumbakam - first appears in Maha Upnishad. (Two versions - attacted to Yajur and sama veda)
• Aham Brahma Asmi - "I am (part of) Brahman" - Mentioned in Brihadaranyaka Upanishad of the Yajur Veda
• Abhinaya Darpan: Nandikeshwara. Treatise on dance
• Vishakhadutta - Mudrarakshasa. Ascent of Chandragupta maurya
• Silapaddikaran - Ilango adigal, jain. Kovalam, kannagi and madhavi
• Menamakalai - Chattanar, Buddhist. Sequel of above
• Other 3 tamil epics - Sivaka Sintamani, Valayapathi (almost lost), and Kuntalakeci (available in fragments)
• Pratijnayaugandharayana - 
• Vasavadatta, daughter of pradyuta (ujjain king) and Udayana, king of Vatsa
• recieves name from vow of Udayana’s minister Yaugandharayana

Sculptures:

• Nataraja -
• earliest excavated from Ravan phadi cave, Aihole, made by early Chalukyas. But Climax during Chola

Indians to S&T:

• Aryabhata - Zero
• Bhaskaracharya (5th cent) - Time taken by earth to orbit sun 
• Budhayana - first time value of pi, pythagoras theorem
• Pingala - 3rd cent BC - book Chandasahstra (earliest sanskrit treatise on prosedy) - first described binary number system. 
• During Guptas:
• Decimal system, knowledge of zero
• aryabhata - earth moves around sun
• Indian system of numerals - which was adapted by Arabs. 
• Shipbuilding - known since ancient times. Pre-Gupta
• 2nd cent bc - CHola king Ellana captured Sri lana. Satavahana coins  depict fleet of ships. 
• Yukti kalpasutra - sanskrit treatise on ship
• Mining - dated to chalcolithic times. 
• Concrete evidence - Mauryan times. Lohadhyaksha - charge of iron mining
• Megasthenes’s indica - use of aunts for mining
• Shulbasutra - Baudhyana - earliest book on maths. 6th cent BC. Formula of square root, concept similar to pythagoras thm, fire altar construction. 
• Apastamba - 2nd cent BC - introduced concepts of  practical geometry - angles
• Aswaghosha-Buddhacarita,Saundarananda.Sanskrit.Sariputra , Rastrapala.2nd-cent-CE
• Saundarananda-conversion-of-Nanda(Buddha's-half-brother)-to-Buddhism

Coins:

• Satavahana - mostly lead, potin (ag-cu alloy), copper. Silver coins were less in number
• Lion , horse, Lion, Chaitya figures. 
• Ujjain symbol
• Prakrit
• Greek:
• bilungual - Pali (Kharoshti script)  and greek
• detailed info, image of issuing monarch
• Greek deities in initial coins, Indian in later

Indo-Greeks:

• Introduced-use-of-curtains.(Yavanika)
• Introduced-practice of military governship
• Kushans-introduced-Satrap-system

Sangam period:

• Flourished under royal patronage of Pandya kings of madurai
• 3 sangams/muchchangam:
• 1sr - madurai.no literary work availabl
• 2nd - Kadapapuram. ONLY TOLKAPIYAM survives. 
• 3rd - 

Alvars and Nayanars:

• Nalayira Divyaprabandham: composition of 12 Alvars. Aso called Tamil Veda. Compiled by 10th cent

Nagara vs dravida:

• Nagara :
• Covered Pradakshinapath
• Panchayatana
• Trirathas, saptarathas
• No water tank
• Dravida -
• Panchayatana
• Water tank
• Stepped pyramid that rises up linearly rather than curved, Vimana
• Octagonal crowning element, called Shikhara (Kalash in Nagara is spherical)
• Antarala - connects garbhagriha to assembly hall
• Dwarapalas, muthun, yaksha

Vesara - Chalukyas conceptualized. 3 dynasties used:

• Chalukyas of badami and Kalyani
• Rashtrakutas - Kailash temple at ellora
• Hoysalas - Halebidu, Bellur

Art and culture:

• Mauryan v/s Achemenian pillars:
• monolithic/ constructed in pieces
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Mahajanapadass:

• Avanti:  river Vetravati divided Avanti into north and south. Capital Ijjain
• Vatsa- Kausambhi
• Matsya: Viratnagar
• Sravasti-banks-of-rapti (Airavati), tri-of-Ghaghara.( Awadh)
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Terms:

Manigramam, nanadesi - merchant guilds .

Kutagarshala - Where debates between philosophers took place

Maha sammata (Buddhism) - first monarch of the world

Chola land categories:

• Vellanvegai - land of non-brahmin peasants
• Brahmadeya - gifted to Brahmins
• Shalabhoga- for maintenance of school
• Devadana, tirunamatukkani - gifted to temples
• Palichchandam - donated to Jain institutions. 

Visu - group of villages (early vedic period)

Pattini cult in Sangam age- worship of Kannagi, wife of Kovalam. (Subject of Silapaddigalam)

Irrigation - Gupta period:

• Vapi - canal
• Tadaga - tank
• Araghbhatta - lift

Hundis - financial instrument during medieval time. Form of remittance and credit instrument. Included insurance for movement of goods. 

Sangam terms:

• Adimai - slave
• Vellalar - large landowner
• Uzhavar - ploughman

Mauryan:

• Capital divided into 4 provinces. Taxila, Ujjain, Suvarnagiri and Kalinga.
• Punch marked coins with peacock, hill and crescent symbols- official currency
• Samaharta - highest official in charge of assessment
• Sannidhata - Chief custodian of state treasury
• Tirthas - highest category of officials in admn
• Arthashastra - mentions many adhyakshas (officers next to tirthas) for commerce, storehouse, gold, ships, agri, cow, horse, city, chariot, mint, infantry
• After adhyakshas, mahamattas , then amatyas
• Yuktas - revenue
• Rajukkas - land measurement and boundary fixing
• Village - Gramani. Gopa - head of 10-15 villages
• Megasthenes - 6 committees of 5 members each
• Samasthadhyaksha - markets, sulkadhyaksha - toll, navadhyaksha - ships, lohadhyaksha - iron, pauthavadhyaksha -weighs and measures, akaradhyaksha - mines, vyavharika mahamatta - judiciary officers, pulisanj - PR officer
• Konyaks - nagaland
• Halakkis - ktk
• Kanjars - Chambal
• Kurumbas - nilgiri
• Marias - bastar
• Dhammapili:Edicts-of-piety,Ashoka

Gamosa - Assam’s decorative cotton towel. Motifs of Hargila (greater adjutant stork). Symbol of assamese nationalism. First used in 1918 by its political parties. 

Talamaddale - a variant of Yakshagana theatre. Has music and spoken words, but without dance or costumes

Kodumanan - ancient Sangam era trade city in Tamil nadu. Megalithic excavations. Patittrupathu inscription of Sangam lit

Yakshas and yakshi - trace origin to Mauryan period. All three faiths. Earliest mention in Silappadikaran

    All Jain tirthankaras were associated with a Yakshi

Pushti marg - propounded by Vallabhacharya. Tradition of Rudra sampradaya (Vaishnavism). Focussed on Krishna

Later-vedic:

 Govinkartana were the keeper of Games and Forests.

Sangrihitris were the officers who collected the taxes and tributes in the Later Vedic age.

Rajavisvajanan, Ahilabhuvanapathi, (lord of all earth), Ekrat and Samrat (sole ruler)-Later-vedic-titles-for-kings

group of villages-visu.headed by vishayapati.

basic unit of society was family or graham. The head of the family was known as grahapathi.

Prayag PRashasti. - was originally engraved on Ashokan pillar at Kaushambhi. Later moved to Allahabad. has 4 different inscriptions:

• Ashokan inscriptions in Brahmi. 
• Sanudragupta’s conquests, boundaries of gupta empire by Harishena. In Sanskrit and Brahmi
• Jehangir’s in Persian
• Ashoka’s wife Kaurvaki’s charities

People:

Shankarachara - ADVAITA VEDANTA. Brahmana without attribute. Knowledge to attain salvation

Ramanujana - Brahmana with attribute. Devotion and loving faith to attain salvation

Buddhism:

• Reject authority of vedas. 4 nobel truths. 8-fold path. Middle path
• Sri Lanka president gifted Samadhi Buddha statue to India. (In Dhyana Mudra - meditation associated with first enlightenment), Carved in Dolomite marble. 
• Vesak: Day of full moon in month of May. Buddha purniva. Observed by UN since 1999. Birth, enlightenment and death of Buddha

• Buddhist councils:
• 1st council - Rajgriha. Immediately after mahaparinibbana of Buddha. Here, Upali recited Vinaya pitaka (rules of order) and Ananda recited Sutta pitaka (buddhist sermons on ethics). 
• 3rd - Ashoka, Mogaliputta. Abhidhamma pitaka - Summary of Buddha’s teachings in Suttas. last of the three pitakas constituting Pali canon (scriptures of Theravadin Buddhism)
• Places:
• Vishwa shanti stupa - Ratnagiri hill, Rajgir. World’s highest peace pagoda . 7 peace pagodas in india 
• Thotlakonda buddhist complex - Vishakhapatnam, AP. 2000 yr old. Time of ancient Kalinga empire
• Bojjanakonda, Lingalakonda: Rock cut buddhist caves near village Sankaram, in Andhra Pradesh. Dated b/w 4th-9th cent AD. All three phases of Buddhism - Vajrayana, Mahayana, Hinayana flourished. 
• Moghalmari -an excavation site, Medinipur distt of WB.
• Recently, 2 monasteries - Mugalayikaviharika, Yajnapindikamahaviharika within the same complex, excavated. Dated from 6th cent CE, functional till 12th cent CE
• Inscriptions : Letters+  Deer- Dharmachakra symbols. In Sanskrit. Script - transitional phase between NorthIndian Brahmi and early SIddhamatrika
• Hsuan Tsang who visited in 7th cent CE referred to the existence of 10 monasteries within Tamralipta (Tamluk, Medinipur distt)
• Hierarchy from texts: Mahavihara > Vihara > Viharika
• Moghalmari - name from medieval battle between Mughals and Pathans (16th-early 17th cent)
• Kanchipuram - Once Pallava capital, was also a noted centre of Tamil and Sanskrit learning. Dinganaga (Buddhist writer), Bharavi (6th cent poet, wrote Kiratarjuniya), Ramanuja (Hindu philosopher, 11th-12th cent) visited. Im religious centre. Hosts many temples dedicated to Shiva and Vishnu. 
• Namdroling monastery - Karnataka
• Kurkihar, Hajipur - Bihar
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• Vikramshila, Odantapuri, Nalanda, somarupa - centres of learning
• Pala school of art:
• Pala period (750-1200 Ad) witnessed last great phase of buddhism
• Earliest examples of miniature paintings in India: palas of east and jains of west in 11th-12th cent
• Naturalistic. 
• Came to an end after muslim invader destroyed buddhist monasteries in early 13th cent
• Resembles contemporary stone and bronze sculptures
• Upali, ananda, mahakashyapa - disciples of buddha
• at first council at Rajgriha, Upali recited Vinaya pitaka ( rules of order) , Ananda recited Sutta pitaka (buddha’s sermons, ethics)
• Abhidhamma pitaka- last of the three constituted the Pali canon, the scriptures of theravada buddhism. Does not contain philosophies. Contains Summaries or enumerated lists
• Sthavirvadins:Strive-for- Arahantship or release from the constant round of rebirth (Samsara)
• Sects:
• Theravada: ’Teaching of the elders'
• myanmar, cambodia, laos, Sri Lanka, Thailand, south India, indonesia. 
• 3rd cent BCE. Derived from a Buddhist school named Sthaviravada (introduced to sri lanka by Ashoka)
• Vajrayana: 900 CE. Grounded on principles of Mahayana buddhism
• Vaibhasika=Sarvastivada
• Tantric buddhism. Developed in India and neighbouring Tibet
• Chief deities called Tara
• Became popular in Eastern India, part Bihar and Bengal
• meditation, breathing exercises for enlightenment
• Hinayana: lesser vehicle. Mahayana literature uses this term to refer to non-Mahayanist schools, including the Theravada, Sarvastivada, Mahasamghika and some fifteen other Buddhist schools
• Mahayana:
• Origin - 100 BCE in Northern India and kashmir.
• Sects:Mahasanghika,Ekavyavaharikas, and the Kaukkutikas
• China, Korea, Tibet, Japan
• Bodhisatvas became new model of rel practise as opposed to Arhats (Hinayana: Hearer. Only concerned with self-pursuit of liberation)
• Schools:
• Madhyamika - founded by Nagarjuna, 2nd cent
• Associated scholar - Chandrakirti
• Sunyata doctrine - all things are empty (sunya) of nature, substance or essence
• Yogacara: Brothers Asanga and Vasubandhu, 4th cent
• over 52% practitioners. 
• Zen Buddhism: Japan, China. Meditation is central
• Dharmaguptaka (in China, Vietnam, and Korea),
• Mulasarvastivada (in Tibet)
• Prasangika, svatantrika, sautantrika
• Earliest forms: Mahasanghika (emerged at 2nd council, parting ways from sthavarivadins. 1st major schism in buddhism. Resemblance to mahayana), sthavarivada
• Vatsiputriya, Vbhajavada: during Ashoka
• Lit:
• Matanga Jataka - about a Bodhisatva named Chandala. Pali
• Dipavamsa - chronicle of island. Pali. Sri Lanka
• Sutta Pitaka - mentions about a convo between King Ajatashatru (of magadha) and Buddha. King tells Buddha about his conversation with another teacher Makkhali Ghosala (founder of Ajivika sect) (all three contemporaries)
• Vihars - mauryan. Chaityas : post-mauryan
• Chaitya cave at Karle - 120 CE by Western satrap ruler Nahapana. 

Schools of Hindu philosophy:

6 orthodox: 

• Vaisheshika: Physicality of universe. Realistic and objective school. Founder - Kanada. 
• Atomic theory
• Everything made of 5 elements - Dravya
• 
  
• Ajivika and Lokayata:
• Ajivika - fatalist, i.e. everything is pre-determined. Wise and fool cannot come out of karma. will take their course and make an en of sorrow. 
• Lokayatas (Charvaka) - materialists - everything is not pre-determined. 
• Samkhya - Kapil Muni
• two phases of devp: original view (1st cent AD) - material. New view - 4th cent ad, more spiritual
• Vedas
• Not believe in existence of God
• Nyaya - Gautam
• Mimamsa - Rishi jaimini

Other:

• Kapalika school - Bhairava form of Shaivism. Skulls

Jainism:

• Councils:
• 1st - Patliputra - By Sthalubahu,, 3r century BC - failed on a conclusion
• 2nd - Valabhi - 5th century AD. Presided by Devardhi Kshamasramana. 12 angas and 12 Upangas - final compilation of Jain literature, completed in this Council. 
• Tenets: No god. All objects possess a soul (even inanimate). Rejected authority of vedas.  did not condemn varna system. Belief in reincarnation. Theory of karma
• First sermon at Pava
• Mahavira’s symbol - lion. Attained highest spiritual knowledge called kaivalya. Born-Kundagrama near vaishali. Jnatrika clan
• Shvetambaras- led b Sthulabahu. Followed Parsvanath (who existed before mahavira)
• Digambaras - led by Bhadrabahu and Chandragupta maurya. Belagola, ktk
• Five Shruta Kevalins in digambara Jainism – Govarddhana Mahamuni, Vishnu, Nandimitra, Aparajita and Bhadrabahu.
• Shruta Kevalins - ascetics with complete knowledge of Jaina Agams (texts)
• Akota (guj), Hansi (Haryana), Chausa (bihar) - jain sites
• Other smaller Sects:
• Digambara sects:
• Bisapantha (bhattarakas. ritual worship of images of tirthankaras), terapantha (worshiponly image of trithankaras, avoid offering flowers etc), taranapanth (worship sacred texts - Samaya sara, instead of images. They recited not only the main texts of Jainism but also the fourteen texts written by Taranaswam. focus on rel knowledge) , gumanapanth (worship images, but do not perform arti), totapantha, kanjipanth (kani swami was originally swetambara. later became digambara. (temples in nairobi and London too)
• Swetambara: 
• Murtipujakas - largest sub-sect. Also known deravasis/Caityavasis/mandirmargis. 
• Sthanakvasi - founded by monk Viraj, 18th cent. Denounced image worship or temple construction. Simple sthanaks or prayer halls
• Terapanthis
• Lonka sect - 14-15th cent
• Gacchas - swetambara. 11th-13th cent. ascetics. 84 gacchas
• Literature: agama or canonical, and non-agama. Agama - in ardha-magadhi
• Agama siddhanta - early lit, ack by both sects.
• 41 sutras- result of 2nd council at Valabhi:
• 11 anga suttas - concepts and philosphy in form of myths, legends etc
• 12 upangas
• Chedas/cheya suttas - rules of conduct
• Mullas/mula suttas - basic tenets of jainism
• Eight miscellaneous works such as the Kalpasutra of Bhadrabahu (teacher of chanragupta maurya. life story of mahavira and parsvanath), the Nandi Sutta and so on.
• Prakarnikas
• 12 niryuktis - commentaries. Early in prakrit, later ones in sanskrit
• Adipurana: many incarnations of first tirthankara Adinatha/rishabhanatha. based on earlier work in sanskrit by Jinasenacharya
• Acaranga sutra - oldest Agama sutra, written in ardha magadhi. 
• Jivika chintamani - tirutakkaevar, in Tamil. part of sangam lit
• Kural of tiruvalluvar - Jain
• 
  
• Belief in karma is common to Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism. However Jainism differs from the other two with regard to the nature and working of the principle of karma. Karma is more a process of self-correction rather than self-punishmen
• Syadavada/Saptabhangi -theory of probabilites. Truth cannot be comprehended by our minds completely. We can view it relatively and relationally from various view points and each holds good in a certain sense.
• Anekantavada: Emphasises that the ultimate truth and reality is complex, and has multiple-aspects i.e theory of plurality.
• Architecture:
• Jain architecture cannot be accredited with a style of its own, it was almost an offshoot of Hindu and Buddhist styles.
• Layana/Gumphas (Caves)
• Ellora Caves (Cave No. 30-35)- Maharashtra
• Mangi Tungi Cave- Maharashtra
• Gajapantha Cave- Maharashtra
• Udayagiri-Khandagiri Caves- Odisha
• Hathi-gumpha Cave- Odisha
• Sittanavasal Cave- Tamil Nadu
• Statues
• Gometeshwara/Bahubali Statue- Shravanabelagola, Karnataka
• Statue of Ahimsa (Rishabnatha)- Mangi-Tungi hills, Maharashtra
• Jianalaya (Temple)
• Dilwara Temple- Mount Abu, Rajasthan
• Girnar and Palitana Temple- Gujarat
• Muktagiri Temple- Maharashtra
• Manastambha: It is found in the front side of the temple, having religious importance with an ornamental pillar structure carrying the image of Tirthankar on top and on all four cardinal directions.
  
  
  Basadis: Jain monastic establishment or temples in Karnataka

Art and culture:

• Kharchi Pooja - Tripura. Cleanse the sins of mortal souls.  Originally a Hindu tribals’ festivity, now obsessed by all communities. 
• Shirui Lily festival - Ukrui district of Manipur. Shirui Hills - state flower of manipur - Shirui lily. 
• Bodies:
• Sangeet Natak akademi:
• 1951. Resolution of GoI
• Ustad bismillah khan yuva Puraskar - artists below 40 yrs
• Ratna Sadsya - Fellowships
• Navroz:
• According to Zoroastrian calendar, March 21st. But in India, Shahanshahi calendar followed. Festival comes at different dates every year.
• Also known as Pateti
• Mudiyettu: Intangible heritage UNESCO. 
• Bhagwati cult. Mythological depiction of tale of Battle between Goddess Kali and demon Darika
• Pulikati: Fork art of Kerela. Tiger dance
• 
  
• Places:
• SHAMOLI - HERITAGE HOUSE OF Rabindranath Tagore. Under Archeological survey of India. 
• Thudumbattam - folk art form, TN
• Festivals:
• Samakka Sarakka Jatara: Asia’s biggest tribal festival. Attended by 1 cr. Koya tribe of Telangana. Held bi-annually to honour Samkka and her daughter Sarakka
• Jal Mahotsav - Every year, Hanuwantiya island, MP
• Kathakar - Kerela. Only oral storytelling festival of India. Part of Ghumakkad Narain, started under aegis of UNESCO in 2010
• Paryushana  - Annual festival of Jains
• Losar - Tibetan new year, celebrated across AP
• Cheti Chand - Sindhi new year
• Zo Kutpui - Mizo tribes. 
• Lai haraoba - Meitis of Manipur
• Indian Harvest festivals:
• Makar Sakranti - Sun enters Makar zodiac. Days begin to lengthen
• Pongal: TN
• Magha Bihu - Assam
• Uttarayan: Guj
• Maghi: Punjab. River bathing
• Saaji: HP
• Kicheri: UP
• Shakrain: Bangladesh
• Cher Chera - Chhatisgarh
• Kambala - track bullafo race, Ktk
• martial arts:
• Thang-ta/Huyen lallong - Manipur. Thang - sword, ta - Spear. Huyen lallong - 2 components - thang ta (armed) an sarit sarak (unarmed) 
• Thoda - HP. Wooden bows and arrows. Mahabharata wars
• Ambubachi mela: Goddess kamakhya/Siddha kumbjika. Also identified as kali, maha tripura celebrate fertility cult. No idol in temple, goddess worshipped in the form of yoni-like stone. Mahakumbh of the east
• Kamakhya - atop nilachal hills in Guwahati - one of the 51 shaktipeeths 
• Bishnu Sendra Parva: Jh, Orissa and WB. Annual hunting festival
• Wari warkari - Hindu god Vithoba. Bhakti Vaishnavite festival. Mh
• Gnaneshwar, namdev, eknath, tukaram, Chokhamela, GAdge maharaj
• Nanda devi raj Jatra - Uttarakhand, Pithoragarh
• Chaliha sahib festival -Sindhi. Thanksgiving in honour of Varunadev
• Nuakhai johar - agri festival. Orissa, chhatisgarh. Goddess Samaleswari
  
  
• Folk music, dances:
• Gulraj - Kashmir
• Mand - Rajasthan
• Bhatiali - Bengal
• Dhrupad - one of the oldest gharanas. Reached peak during Emperor Akbar’s court
• Vijayanagar architecture:
• Vardharaja, Ekamparanath, Thiruvanamalai, Chidambaram  temples. 
• Dance, theatre:
• Yakshagana (kerela also), Bhootaradhane, Boyalata - Ktk
• Kuchipudi - Tarangam, Jal chitra nrityam
• Manipuri - pung musical instrument
• Bhaona - mythology-based theatre, Assam. Music - Borgeet, Language- Brajavali
• Mallkambha - gymnast sport, MP
• Kalariyapatu - Kerela
• Tabo monastery - Spiti, HP. Kardang - Lahaul. Rumtek - largest in Sikkim

Periods:

• Mesolithic Age:
• Use of microliths
• First human settlement near Ganga plains
• Somestication of animals, primitive agriculture stated
• 10000-6000 BC
• Langhanj - Gujarat, Adamgarh - MP
• Rig vedic age:
•  Trade was conducted on barter system.  In the later times, gold coins called nishka were used as media of exchange in large transactions.
• All later Vedic texts were compiled in the Upper Gangetic basin in Circa 1000-600 BC.
• Mahajanapada:
• Successful-merchants:Satthavahas in Prakrit language and Masattuvan in Tamil language.
• Harappan:
• Lothal - only harappan city with houses having entry from main street. (Others - side entry). 3 paired cemetary
• Rakhigarhi, HAryana - Largest Harappan site of Indian subcontinent
• Kalibangan - earliest evidence of surgery. Earliest evidence of ploughed field .Bbank-of-Ghaggar
• Oldest-ploughed-field.
• Earliest-recorded EQ
• Fire-Altars, Charging bull, tiled floor, two kinds of burials ,bones-of-camel
• Earthen-bricks(Not baked)
• No drainage system
• Not well-planned
•  Mohenjodaro, Harappa, Chanhudaro were on the bank of river Indus
• Bead making - chanhudaro and lothal
• Mehrgarh - Earliest evidence of settled life, agri
• Banawali, cholistan - Clay model of plough
• Cotton piece- Mohenjodaro
• Fire altars- Kalibangan
• Sutkagendor - Western most
• Script - Boustrophedus
• Dholavira - latest discovered
• most of the pottery found in Indus valley region is unpainted, that is plain. The painted pottery constitutes a very small percentage of the total ceramics.
• Sugarcane was not known to Indus people
• Canal found in Shortughai, Afghanistan, but absent in Punjab or Sind. 
• Sadikpur sinauli, UP - largest cemetary of late harappan period. 
• 
• Kalibangan-bank of  Dried Saraswati
• Harappan:
• Daya Ram Sahni
• Port-cities:
• Balakot(Pak),Kuntasi(Guj),Lothal(Guj)
• 
  
• Tribes:
• Mizo, Kaipeng, Malsom - Tripura

Timelines:

• Neolithic:
• Agri began
• Chirand (Bihar), Burzahon (Kashmir), Mahgara, Chopani Mando, and Koldihwa in Belan valley, UP
• Kodekal, Utnur, Nagatjunikonda, Palavoy in Andhra Pradesh; Tekkalkolta, Maski, Narsipur, Sangankallu, Hallur, and Brahmagiri in Karnataka; Pariamlpalli in Tamil Nadu etc
• Metal unknown
• Microliths
• Mehrgarh, on Bolan river bank (tri of Indus)
• Gufkral (kashmir)
• Chalcolithic - transition between first farming societies (neolithic) and urban and literate societies of Bronze age. 
• Copper metallurgy developed Mesopotamia. Earliest known sites-  in Syria (Tell Halaf), 6500 yrs BC. However, isolated copper axes and adzes are known from Catalhoyuk in Anatolia and Jarmo in Mesopotamia by 7500 cal BC
• first metal age
• rom the Chhotanagpur plateau to the copper Gangetic basin. Some sites are found at Brahmagiri near Mysore and NavadaToli on the Narmada.
• Various chalcolithic cultures:
• Ahar culture: Chalcolithic culture in South-eastern Rajasthan, contemporaray to Indus valey. 3000-1500 BC. Banas, Berach rivers. Copper ores from aravalli hills. Followed by Malwa culture. (Navdatoli on Narmada southern bank, its largest city. Shortage of copper, coz lot of stone artefacts found). Black and red ware
• Kayatha - Chambal and its tri. Red ware
• Malwa - one of the largest
• Svalda - Dhulia distt of Mh
• Prabhas and Rangpur - derived from harappan culture. Polished red ware
•  cities: Ahar, Gilund, Nagada, Navdatoli, Eran, Prabhas, Rangpur, Prakash, Daimabad, and Inamgaon
• Gold and ivory come to Jorwe people from Tekkalkotta in Karnataka and semiprecious stones may have been traded to various parts from Rajpipla in Gujarat.
• Buddhism: Anatta, anikka and dukkha constitute right understanding. 
• Hampi - UNESCO in 1986. Evidences of minor Ashokan rock edicts.
• Belan-valley:
• First-evidence-of-use-of-fire-in-india
• Koba-fora,Kenya-first-evidence-of-use-of-fire
• Burzahom,Gufkral:dogs-buried-with-masters-first-seen.
• Neolithic
• Pottery-developed-during-neolithic
• Neolithic-aquainted-with-art-of-growing-cereals
• Stone-axes-in-large-numbers
• Lord-PArshuram
• women poets like Apala, Viswavara, Ghosa and Lopamudra during the Rig Vedic period.
• Vrihi-Rice

Vedic civilization:

• Sabha - general assembly of elders and heads of family. Samiti - General assembly open for all including women.  Samiti was ultimate authority and its decision were final. So, king not autocratic. 

Pratihara style of architecture: 

8th-11th century. Building at Khajuraho, MP. Nagara stule. Use of sandstone of various shades of red. Ghateswara temple in bardoli rajasthan - shiva' sandstone statue

Upanishads:Dialog-b/w-teacher-and-disciple.e origin of the universe, life and death, the material and spiritual world and nature of knowledge 

Brahmanas-prayer,sacrificial-ceremony

Aranyakas: mysticism,rites,rituals,sacrifices

Satavahana:

• Gaulmika-head-of-military.Law-and-order-in-rural-areas
• Feudal.3-grades-of-feudatories:
•  'Raja' (highest grade), the 'Mahabhoja' and the 'Maharathi' or 'Senapati'
• Amatya-minister.Not-hereditary
• Gramika-village-admn
• Uparakshita-building-caves
• Nagar-sabha,gram-sabha

 DAVINCI+: First US led mission to Venus's atmosphere

• Tessarae:Geological-feature-on-Venus

NASA's Dragonfly mission plans to fly a drone copter to Saturn's largest moon Titan. second largest moon in our solar system.

Shahbazgarhi:Fourteen major edicts recorded at the site present aspects of Asoka’s dharma or righteous law.Kharoshti-script

Ring wells were first constructed under the Maurya's in the Gangetic plains. 

 Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment launched the SAGE (Seniorcare Aging Growth Engine) initiative and SAGE portal for elderly persons.A-'one-stop access' of elderly care products and services by credible start-ups.

Republican-states:

•  Sakyas of Kapilavastu, the Koliyas of Ramagama, the Bhaggas of Susumagiri, the Bulis of Allakappa, the Kalamasof Keshaputta and the Moriyas of Pippalivana.

NITI Aayog has launched the 'National Program and Project Management Policy Framework' (NPMPF), envisaged to bring radical reforms in the way infrastructure projects are executed in India. QCI-develop-and-operationalize

Mains:

Cultural heritage protection:

• Indian Digital heritage Project - Department of Science and technology. Digital documentation and interpretation of our tangible cultural heritage. fine synergy of geospatial tech and matured ICT tech. Hampi is first site to be documented under project
• National mIssion on manuscripts: 2003, Min of tourism and culture. 
• India possesses an estimate of 10 mn manuscripts, probably the largest in the world. 
• Mongolian Kanjur - buddhist manuscripts, ‘concise orders’ of the Buddha. In classical Mongolian. Translated from Tibetan
• NE
• Assam:
• Kalakshetra, a cultural complex in Guwahati named after Srimanta Sankaradev, setup as part of Clause 6 of Assam Accord. (to protect, preserve and promote the cultural, social, linguistic identity and heritage of the Assamese people)
• UNDP Assam Human Development report from 2014: Inhabitants of Char Chapori - 80% live below Poverty line. suffering from “communication deficits, lack of adequate schooling facilities beyond primary, girl child marriage, poverty and illiteracy
• Bhakti:
• Adi Sankara’s Bhasya - commentary on Upanishads, Gita
• Advaita vedanta
• Maya
• Mathas (monasteries)
• Ekasarana-Dharma:neo-vaishnavite-religion.Sri-Sankaradeva.15-16thcent-Assam.
•  true devotee does not want heaven or moksha. He only wants to chant the Lord's name and be born again and again to sing His praise.
• Sufi
• Ba-shara:
•  Chishti, Suhrawardi, Firdawsi, Qadiri and Naqshbandi silsilahs. The Qalandars belonged to this group.
• 
  
  
• 
  

Local art:

• Khurja, a city in Bulandshehr distt, UP - Called Ceramic City. Blue pottery and bon cHina. The town generates a revenue of 100 cr a yr. Disrupted due to COVID. 
• One District one product should not merely be a lip service. Bring down GST on ceramics from 12% to 5%
• Intermediary earns the max, artisans get little profit. Train them to operate online sales.