Geography add on points for Mains

Plate-tectonics:

Glacial burst:

Nanda devi glacier burst. Flooded Rishiganga river. Washed awat Rishiganga hydroelectric power project and Tapuvan project on Dhauliganga (tri of Alaknanda)

Satellites - no glacial lake in the region. But possibility of a water pocket (lakes inside glaciers)
Dhauliganga originates from Vasudhara tal, passes through Nandadevi national park. Joined by Rishiganga at Raini, then flows through Tapovan, then joined by Alaknanda at Vishnuprayag near Joshimath

Thermal profile of glaciers increasing. Earlier - avg temperatures : -6 to -20 C. Now -2
Dhauliga
Hindu Kush Himalaya Assessment Report 2019: 1/3rd of Hindu Kush Himalaya's glaciers would melt by 2100, even if all countries in the region fulfill their Paris NDCs
Chopra Committee 2014: role of dams in exacerbating floods in the region.
2013 Kedarnath floods:

Heavy summer monsoon rainfall, destrying a river training wall, then triggering a landslide, leadingto breach of Chorabari moriane-dammed lake.

IPCC Special report on Ocean and Cryosphere - floods,avaanches,andslides forecast to increase in Himalayan ranges. Variations in overall water availability

Cloudburst:

HIgh-relative-humidity
Low-T
Slow-winds
High-cloud-fever

Phenomenon

Extra-tropical cyclones:

In Mediterranean sea - medicanes. Sept 2020- Medicane names Ianos, Greece. Havoc to islands of Zakynthos, Kefalonia, and Ithaca
Baroclinic instability -steep difference b/w temperatures of N, S pole and equatorial regions. In upper atmosphere, horizontal pressure gradient => wind shear => baroclinic instability

Increasing-cyclonic-activity-in-Arabian-sea:

SST-increasing.Temp. now is 1.2–1.4 °C higher than the temperature witnessed four decades ago.
Rising temperature is also enabling the Arabian Sea to supply ample energy for the intensification of cyclones.

Tauktae-became-very-severe-cyclonic-storm-in-2-days

Arabian Sea is also providing conducive wind shear for cyclones

a higher level easterly wind drove the depression of Cyclone Ockhi from the Bay of Bengal to the Arabian Sea.

Greater occurrence of El Niño Modoki

Reduces-cyclogenesis-in-BoB
Increases-in-Arabian-sea

Monsoon:

Role-of-monsoon-trough:

Southward migration results in active/vigorous monsoon over major part of India.
In contrast, the northward migration of this trough leads to break monsoon condition over major part of India and heavy rains along foothills of Himalayas and sometimes floods in Brahmaputra river

Decreasing-rainfaill-NE:

PDO
weakening-BoB-branch-of-SW_Monsoon

Climate:

Laurentian:

North-america:Uniformity-of-precipitation.Late-summer-maximum

Earthquakes:

Alpide-belt:17%-of-world's-largest-EQs

Volcano:

Mid-oceanic-ridges:>75%-of-all-volcanic-activity-on-planet

Shallow-location-of-EQs-at-mid-coeanic-ridges.Why:
EQs-along-divergent-and-transform-plate-boundaries-are-shallow.

Below-them,rocks-are-too-hot-and-weak-to-be-permanently-deformed-or-cause-stress
Offset-by-transform-faults

Pacific-Decadal-Oscillation:

North-pacific/mid-latitude-pacific-basin
Long-term-ocean-fluctuation.Can-remain-in-same-phase-20-30yrs
Cool-can-intensify-La-nino,diminish-el-nino-impact
Impact-of-PDO-clearly-visible-in-form-of-deficit-rainfall-in-NE-India
f both ENSO and the PDO are in the same phase, it is believed that El Niño/La Nina impacts may be magnified. Conversely, if ENSO and the PDO are out of phase, it has been proposed that they may offset one another, preventing "true" ENSO impacts from occurring

Hills:

A&N:

Mount harriet - Andaman - 3rd highest
Saddle - North Andaman
Mount Thuillier - Great Nicobar

Recommendations:

An early warning system, base on indicators ike rainfall, water level, flow level etc
Proposed National Centre of Glacioloy be setup
Multiplicity of agencies:

monitoring and survey of glaciers - by GSI under Min of Mines
Climate change studies - min of environment
IMD monitors rainfall and precipitation
Avalanches by an agency undr DRDO
remote sensing by Ntional remote ensing agency under ISRO

Himalayan faults:

Main central thrust formed 20-22 mn yrs ago - running E-W along Himalayas, is where Indian and EUrasian plates connect
Active nature of Himalayan faults an area of concern

Proposed India-Nepal Pancheswar dam on Kali river in Kumaon range - could witness strong EQs in Nepal region - Assessment by Current Science 2019. Due to Rangunkhola fault

Pangong-Tso:

Has mountain spurs of Chang Chenmo range, called fingers.
India holds till finger 4, claims till finger 8. Indian army has a permanent position near finger 3. (Dhan sigh Tapa post)
South Bank - leads to Kailash range and Chushull sector
Current disengagememt limited to 2 places on Ladakh LAC: North bank of Pangong, and Kailash range to South of Pangong.
3 other sites of contention: Depsang, Gogra-hot spring, Demchok

Senkaku (Okinawa/Diaoyu) Islands: disputed between Japan, China and Taiwan.

Related: Potsdam declaration - CHina-Japan, over control of Taiwan to China
Okinawa Reversion agreement - US-Japan
US-Japan treaty of mutual cooperation and security - US has reaffirmed that the island features come under this

Space Hurricanes: caused by plasma unleashed from sun as solar wind. Interaction of solar winds with earth’s magnetic field

Earlier thought to be only theoratical, recently observed first time, above North Pole. Associated with Aurora borealis

Rivers:

Beas: originates ear Rohtang pass, southern end of Pir Panjal range. Lies entirely in ndia, passes through Dhauladhar, meets Satluj near Harike in Punjab.

Water to Delhi via Nangal hydel channel

Ken and Betwa:

tris of Yamuna. Originate in MP
Rajghat, Paricha, Matatila dams -over Betwa
Ken meets Yamuna in Banda distt, UP. Betwa - in Hamirpur distt, UP

Umngot - Meghalaya. natural boundary between Ri Pnar (of Jaintia Hills) with Hima Khyrim (of Khasi Hills).
Jordan river: Jordan and the Golan Heights border the river to the east, while the West Bank and Israel lie to its west. From Sea of Galilee to red sea
Bhedaghat-Lametaghat - Jabalpur, marble, confluence of Narmada and Banganga
Devika river: Originates from Suddha mahadev temple in Udhampur, J&K. Merges with Ravi in Pakistan.

Mention in Nilmit Purana by Nela muni

Helmand river, Kajaki dam. -Afghanistan. World's largst opium producing area.
Krishna:

Right bank tributaries of Krishna: Venna, Koyna, Panchganga, Dudhganga, Ghataprabha, Malaprabha and Tungabhadra are the major right-bank tributaries.
Left Bank tributaries of Krishna: Bhima, Dindi, Peddavagu, Halia, Musi, Paleru, and Munneru are the major left-bank tributaries.

Lakes:

Chilika:

Chilika Lagoon - World’s largest popn of irrawaddy dolphins. Satpata island. Kalijai temple - on an island on Chilika. Asia’s largest and world’s 2nd largest lagoon. 1st from India on Ramsar. Nalabana island
Recent study:was once part of Bay of Bengal. Process of formation started during Pleistocene epoch, 20,000 yrs ago. River Mahanadi’s heavy delta created sand-bars near mouth=> back-flow of sea water => huge brackish-water lake
Historical evidences:

Claudius Ptolemy (150 CE) - Palur/Palaura, important Kalinga fort
Hsuan-Tsang - Che-li-ta-lo-Ching’ as a flourishing port.
Brahmanda Purana - 10th cent CE - Chilika was an important centre of trade and commerce, with ships sailing to Java, Malaya and Ceylon.
Kalidas - called King of Kalinga as ‘Madhodhipati’ or ‘Lord of the Ocean’

Glaciers:

Gangri - Pir panjal range, Nun Kun massif
Lilanda, Chhuling - Manasulu
Siachin - Karakoram
Rakhiot -Pir Panjal range , located in Nanga parbat
Chong Kumdan - Karakoram, in Shyok, Ladakh
Bara-shigri:Chandra(of-chandra-bhaga)

Northern-slope-of-Pir-Panjal
Confluence-woth-Bhaga-at-Tandi

Banderpunch-Yamuna.Garhwal-himalaya

Part-of-sankari-range
Govind-Pashu-Vihar-NP

Milam-Goriganga,Kumaon-himalaya

Near-Nanda-devi-sanctuary

Special:

Pichavaram mangrove ecosystem is located between the Vellar and Coleroon Estuaries in TamilNadu.

Terms:

Gulf of Aden. -Gulf of Berbera

Yanomani tribes - Amazon

Molniya orbit - is a type of satellite orbit designed to provide communications and remote sensing coverage over high latitudes Highly elliptical

Passes:

Baralacha in Zanskar range - water divide between Yunan and Bhaga rivers

Volcanoes:

About-1900-active-volcanoes-on-earth
Majority-at-cgt-and-Dgt-plate-boundaries

Dgt:

80-90%-of-all-volcanoes-occur-when-plates-separate-apart
Eg:Mid-atlantic-ridge

Iceland

Cgt:

Mt-etna
Ring-of-fire:Most-volcanoes-are-result-of-subduction

About-425-volcanoes

shows how COVID-19 is exposing, exploiting and exacerbating pre-existing inequalities, including gender inequalitie

Mount Sinabung Volcano, Sumatran Island erupted recently. (June). Erupted first in 2010 in 400 years.

Indonesia’s vulnerability - at meeting pt of 3 major continental plates- Pacific, Eurasian, Indo-Australian, and smaller Philippines plate. On Pacific ring of fire

Pacific ring of fire: 3 of world’s 4 most active volcanoes - Mt St. Helens (USA), Mt Fuji (Japan), Mt Pinatubo (Phillipines) lie on it.

90% of world’s earthquakes, 80% of world’s largest earthquakes
Why? Ring of fire has the biggest concentration of subduction zones (subduction of oceanic tectonic plates beneath lighter continental plates here)

Mountains:

Mount etna - Italy - largest active volcano n eurupe. UNESCO WHS in 2013
Mount Ebrus: Europe’s highest peak. A dormant volcano in Caucasus Mountains.

2nd highest - Mt Blanc. It is the highest mountain in Alps and western Europe. Called white mountain in French. At Italy-France border.

Mt Kun - 2nd highest peak in between Kargil and Zanskar regions of Ladakh. Part of Nun Kun mountains. Highest peak in the part of Himalayas lying on Indian side of J&K LOC
Mt Leo Pargyl - Zanskar range, in HP. 3rd highest peak of HP
Wakaari/White Island VOlcano - New Zealand
Chang La pass - Ladakh. Has a temple dedicated to Chang la baba. India’s seed vault.
Mt Aconcagua: Highst peak of Andes mountains in Argentina. Highest mountain outside of Asia. Oe of the 7 summits of the 7 continents.
Sarchu plains - at HP-Ladakh border.
Malwa-plateau:

Black-soil
Extensive-lava-flows

Features of mountains - passes, etc

Siachen glacier: In karakoram range. 1984 - Operation meghdoot - India’s control over the glacier

Source of many rivers. Nubra river (tri of Shyok)
World’s highest helipad
Rare species - Snow leopard, brown bear

The Baralacha Pass (on zanskar range) forms a natural divide between the Bhaga and Yunam River. Connects Leh and Lahaul districts. The Bhaga River is a tributary of Chenab River which is also known as the Chandrabhaga River. The tributary originates from the Suraj Tal, a few kilometers from Baralacha Pass. The Chandra River which meets the Bhaga River at Tandi to form the Chandrabhaga, originates from a glacier in the Baralacha La region.

Geo features

Faults: 3 types of faults exist

Strike fault: rocks slide past each other horizontally. Little/no vertical movement. San Andreas, Anatolian fault
Normal fault: blocks ull apart and create a valley. East African Rift zone; Basin And Range Province of N. America.
Thrust (reverse) fault: blocks slide on top of the other. Eg, when tectonic plates push up mountain ranges like Himalayas, Rocky mountains.
Strike-slip faults are usuailly vertical, while normal and thrust are at an angle to surface of the Earth.

Barind plain:WB. is a division of Indo-Gangetic plains, between the Kosi-Mahananda corridor in the west and the river Sankosh in the east.
V

Lakes:

Sambhar : India’s largest inland saltwater lake.

Receives water from 5 rivers - Medtha, Samaod, Mantha, Rupangarh, Khari and Khandela
Ramsar site
Pink flamingoes

Vembanad - longest in India, second largest in Kerela. Under national wetlands conservation programme.
Chilika: Largest brackish water lagoon in India. 2nd largest - Pulicat
World’s highest lake: Kajin Sara lake, recently discovered in Nepal. Surrounded by Mt Manaslu, Damodar, Annapurna and Lamjung.
Wetlands:

Oossudu lake - TN and Puducherrry. protected under National wetlands conservation programme

Gogobeek lake: Bihar. Ox-bow lake, formed from flow of rivers Mahanadi and Kankhar in north, and Ganga in South.
Dighalipukhuri, Jorpukhuri - lakes in assam. Lesser whistling duck
Suraj tal: Sacred. Just below Bara-lacha pass in Lahaul-spiti. 3rd highest lake in India
Tsong-mo/Changu lake: Gangtok, Sikkim
Dal lake - 2nd largest in UT of J&K. Called ‘Rad’ in kashmiri. In Zabarwan mountain valley, on foothills of Shakarcharya hills.
Niti-Valley-Uk
Chittaura-lake-UP

Rivers:

Kosi: originates in tibet, flows through Nepal into Bihar in India.

Kosi-Mechi river linkage. Mechi - tributary of mahananda.

Through Kaziranga - Brahmaputra, Diphlu, Mora Diphlu and Mora Dhansari
Krishna: originates - Mahabaleshwar, Mh.

States: Mh, Ktk, Telangana, AP,

Bhashar Char - Uninhabited island on Meghna river. Bangladesh govt to rehabilitate Rohingyas here.
Sukapaika - distributary of Mahanadi, Orissa
Ganga: https://nmcg.nic.in/courseofganga.aspx
Ujh - tributary of Ravi. Originates in Kailash mountains. Four streams, Bhini, Sutar, Dunarki and Talan join Ujh at Panjtirthi. Ujh Multipurpose project to be built in kathua distt.
Teesta - Pahunri glacier
Mahadayi river - West flowing. Ktk, Goa, Mh. (most of it is in Goa) Becomes Mandovi in Goa. Kalasa Banduri project - Ktk, to divert water to Malaprabha. Mahadayi tribunal - 24 TMC to Goa, 13.4 to ktk, 1.33 to Mh.

Associated - Chorao island. Bridges - Atal setu, Amona bridge

Par river: small river. Originates in Mh, flows to arabian sea via GUj
Sankosh river: Rises in Bhutan, empties into Brahmaputra in Assam
Glaciers:

1. Indus = Bokharchu
2. Shyok = Rimo
3. Ganga = Gangotri
4. Ghaghara = Bharchachungar
5. Yamuna = Yamunotri
6. Brahmaputra = Chemayungdung
teesta - pahunri/kangse

Tsarap river: Tri of Zanskar
Muguthang/Cho Lhamu glacier - source of Teesta
Barakar - tributary of Damodar. Maithon project
Oil spill in Ambarnaya river, Russia (2nd largest in Russia’s modern history). Ambarnaya river flows into Pyasino lake and River Pyasino, which drains into Kara sea (part of arctic ocean). Plant in Norilysk city.
Chalakudy river - tri of Periyar. Originates in Anaimalai, TN. Athirapally hydrioelectric project
Nag river - Nagpur. Part of Kanhan-Pench river system. Originates in Lava hills near Wadi.
Pampa river: 3rd largest of kerela (after periyar and Bharathapuzha). Sabrimala temple on its banks. Dakshin Bhageerathi/River Baris
Krishna river flows through Nagarjunagar Srisailam Tiger reserve.
Shyok - Originates in Rimo glacier, a tongue of Siachen glacier. Tributaries : Chang Chen Mon River, Galwan River, Nubra River, Saltoro River.
Amarkantaka- Narmada, son and Tohila rivers originate. Ancient Kalachuri temple

River/multipurpose projects IN NEWS:

Kaleswaram - lift irrigation project - world’s largest irrigation and drinking water project.

An offshoot of the original Pranahitha lift irrigation system (were separated after an extensive LiDAR survey, due to environmental considerations)
On Godavari river.
Telangana requesting National project status (implying 90% central grant)

Polavaram: On river Godavari, in Andhra Pradesh.

Covers Papikonda national park
Has been accorded national project status.

inter-linking projects:

Daman ganga-Pinjal: Transfer surplus from Bhugad an Khargihill reservoirs in daman ganga (Mh) to Mumbai, via Pinjal river in Vaitarna basin.

Daman ganga: Mh, Guj, D&N and D&D. Originates in WGs, flows into Arabian sea.
Damanganga-Pinjal Link Project benefits Maharashtra while Par-Tapi-Narmada Link Project benefits Gujarat

Saryu Nahar Pariyojana (Uttar Pradesh)
Gosikhurd Irrigation Project (Maharashtra)
Teesta Barrage Project (West Bengal)
Shahpurkandi Dam Project (Punjab).
Salal dam - Chenab river
Etalin hydropower project: On river Dibang. two dams over two tributaries of Dibang - Dir and Tangon. Junction of indo-malayan, paleoarctic and Indo-chinese biogeographic zones.
Salal project: INDUS
KOKRAPARA - tapi
Nagarjunasagar -Krishna
Hirakud - Mahanadi
Maithon - Damodar valley
Rana pratap sagar - Chambal
Chamera - Ravi
Azad pattan hydro power project: On Jhelum river, in PoK
Phandar, Gilgit KIU:
Karot - on Jhelum, in PoK, at PoK-pakistani Punjab border
Kohala - On Jhelum, near muzaffarbad
Bhadbhut-project-Bharuch-freshwater-problems.Capture-excess-water-flowing-from-Sardar-Sarovar.

Part-of-larger-Kalpasagar-project-b/w-Bharuch-and-Bhavnagar.

Lake islands:

Char chinar - Dal lake
Pathiramanal - Alapuzzha distt
Phumdi
Udaipur solar observatory - fateh sagar lake

RIverine:

Bhavani - Krishna
Gowalkot - Vashishti river
The Island - Couum river, Chennai
Kabirvad, Mandhata - Narmada
Munroe island - Kallada river, ashtamudi lake
Nongkhnum - Meghalaya
Panayannurkavu, Parumala - Pamba river, Kerela
Quibble island - Adyar river
Srirangam. -Kolliidam, tri of Kaveri, TN
Srirangapatna - Island town, Ktk.Kaveri. nominated for WHS
Majuli, umananda - Brahmaputra
Lohachar, nayachar - Hooghly
Charao - mandovi

Features:

Rann of Katch:

Rivers drained: Kali, the Dhudud, the Khari, the Niruna, the Kankawati, the Nara, the Kukmavti, the Nagmati, theBukhi. (Luni does not

Wakhan corridor: narrow region of Afghanistan, sandwiched b/w gilgit baltistan and tajakistan
Gilgit-Baltistan:

Home to 5 of the right-thousanders (14 mountains that are more than 8000 m in height above sea level). More than 50 peaks above 7000m
3 of the world’s longest glaciers outside polars.
Britishers had sold it (along with rest of J&K) to Dogra ruler of Jammu, Gulab singh, but retained control through a lease. Lease last renewed in 1935.
Karachi Agreement, 1949: b/w military reps of india and Pak, supervised by UN Comm for India and Pak, estb ceasefire line following 1947 war.

Naku la pass: Sikkim (conflict with China). Others in sikkim - Jelep la, nathu la.
Kuari pass - Uttarakhand. Near Nandai devi park
Brahma taal - Uttarakhand
Fotoksar - valley, Ladakh. Part of the Great Zanskar trek (Lingshed-Padum trek)
Roopkhund - Uttarakhand. Glacial lake, a crater lake. in Trishul, massif. Near Nanda devi

Protected areas:

Banarghatta - Ktk
Bandipore: Mysore and Chamarajanagar distts of Ktk. Declared tiger reserve in 1973. NP in 1974. Kabini river in North, Moyar in South. (Both are tri of Cauvery)
Corbett: Nainital distt of Uk, Ramganga river
Keoladeo Ghana: Confluence of Gambhir and Banganga rivers, Bharatpur distt of Rajasthan.

Ocean features:

Currents:

Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation - large system of ocean currents, move warm, salty water from the tropics to regions further north, such as western Europe and sends colder water south.

Explain

Warm water moves north, it cools. Evaporation increases salt content
Low T and high salt content increase density => sink
cold dense water deep below, spreads southwards
Eventually, pulled back to surface. warms again

Contributes to global climate
Has been weakening in recent times. However, rising temp in Indian ocean could help boost the AMOC and delay slowdown.

More precipiataion over Indian ocean. Pulls air from other regions. Less precipitation over Atlantic => higher salinity

Madden Julien oscillations:

Moving band of rain clouds, travels the globe across tropical oceans. When it appears over Indian ocean during June-Sept, can increase rains over India. happened this year.

Atmosphere:

Ionosphere: overlaps mesosphere, thermosphere, exosphere

GI: Dept of promotion of industry and trade.

First product accorded GI in India - Darjeeling tea.
Nilambur teak/Malabar teak - Kerela.

World’s first teak museum.
Anti-oxidant properties, fungal decay resistance

Namma Kolhapuri chappal - Ktk and Mht
TIrur betul leaf from Kerela
Mizo Puanchei - Mizoram
Pawndum, Ngote Kherh, Hmarom, Tawlhlohpuan - Mizoram (all handicraft)
Khola chilli - Goa
Idu mishmi textile - Aru P
Pathamadai mat - Tamil nadu
Dindigul locks, Kandangi sarees, Palani Panchmirtham - TN
Patola sarees - silk sarees, Patan, GUjarat.
Araku valley coffee - Andhra, Orissa
Boka chaul, Kaji nemu - Assam
Shahi Litchi, Silao Khaja - Bihar
Jeeraphool - Chh
Rajkot patola, PEthapur printing blocks - Guj
Kaala jeera - HP
Achali chuli oil - HP
Coorg, Chikmaglur, Bababudan coffee, Gulbarga toor dal - Ktk
Marayoor jaggery-Sharkara - Kerela
Kadaknath meat - MP
Alphonso -Mh
Manjal/Turmeric Erode: TN
Thirubuvanam Silk saree: TN
Srivilliputtur palkova (food) - TN
Chunar balua patthar: UP
Kamdhamal haldi , Rasgulla - Orissa
Category wise:

Saree and fabrics - highest no of GI tags (31) , followed by craft items (16)

Ktk has highest no of GI tags. Density wise (GIs/sq km) - KErela has highest.
Kashmiri Saffron: only saffron in world grown at altitude of 1600 m. 3 types. Processed without use of chemicals. Color coz of crocin, flavour - safranal, bitterness -
Sohrai Khovar painting: Jharkhand. Mural art. Animals, plants
Telai Rumal cloth- Telangana, cotton

Locations:

Canadian arctic - longest arctic coastline in world
Lampudesa island - Mediterranean Sea
Republic of
Larak Island - Persian Gulf. Iran’s major oil export point
Dokdo islands- disputed between Japan and South Korea
Ream, in Cambodia, near gulf of Thailand
Amazon rainforests - spread over Brazil (60%), Peru (13%), cambodia (10%), Venezeula, Ecuador, Bolivia, Guyana, Suriname, France
Okjokul - first Iceland glacier lost due to climate change.
Tulagi - China recently leased this Island in Soloman islands. Is a site of former Japanese naval base
East Kalimantan - Indonesia’s new capital
Lithium Triangle countries: Chile, Bolivia, Argentina - 54% of world’s lithium resources.
Danakil Depression - in north-eastern Ethiopia, one of the world’s hottest and lowest regions. Separated from Red Sea by live volcanoes, all the water entering it evaporates, no streams flow out of it. Northern end of Great Rift valley
Bhoj wetland, MP - manmade ramsar site
Bhashar Char Island - South-east bangladesh. Meghna river (Relocation of Rohingyas)

Sisseri river bridge - between Dibang and Siang. Constructed by BRO under ‘Project Brahmank'
Marawah ISland - Off the coast of Abu Dhabi. Oldest known natural pearl in the world discovered here.
Bougainville - an island in the Pacific. Holding a referendum to declare independence from Papua New guinea. 1933 Montevideo Convention - 4 criteria for a region wanting to become independent - defined territory, people, govt and ability to form relations with other countries.
Sabang - Naval port in Strait of malacca, Indonesia
Islands in Sunderbans Archipelago:

Balimela reservoir: On river Sileru, Maikangiri distt, Orissa.

Sileru rises in Eastern Ghats of AP and flows northward into Jalaput reservoir at Orissa border. Flows into Sabari river, Chhatisgarh, which is a tributary of Godavari.

Geography of kashmir: http://www.koausa.org/Geography/ch1.4.html
Sonbhadra: In UP, at UP-MP-Chh-Jh border.
Mahakoshal - region of which Sonbhadra is part, includes UP, MP, Jh.
Benishangul- Gumuz region, Ethipia - Grand Ethiopian Rennaissance Dam/Hidasia dam/Millenium dam. Blue nile river. Conflict between Ethiopia and Egypt. Close to border with Sudan
Lake Nasser - between Egypt and Sudan, on Nile river.
Blue nile - tri of Nile. Originates in Lake Tana (Ethiopia)

Associated feature: Tis Issat fall.
Joins white nile in Sudan to form Nile, at Khartoum.

Aqaba - Jorddan
Fordow - Iran
Kirkuk - Iraq
Espanalo island- part of galapagos island. ESPANALO/diego tortoise. Critically en.
Zamora, Kagitingan reefs - Spratly islands, West philipines.
Douimera islands - Red sea
Port o prince: Haiti
Juba: South Sudan
PoK: 2 parts: Azad J&K and Gilgit-baltistan

‘weather war’ b/w india and Pak. DD and AIR forecasts by India, Radio pakistan by Pak

Green Line: separating West Bank and Israel

west bank: captured by Jordan during Arab-Israeli war, snatched back by ISrael during 6-day war of 1967
4th Geneva convention: an occupying power shall not deport/transfer parts of its own civilian population to territory it occupies.

Taiwan:

Largest trading partner is China. LArge trade surplus with China
Member of WTO, APEC, ADB. Not a member of WHO,UN yet.

Jubaland - Somalia
Pyramid of Dsojer - Saqqara, Egypt. First pyrami ever built. World’s oldest monumental stone building.
Raine island - near Great barrier reaf, Australia.
Petrapole - at India-bangladesh border. Largest land customs in Asia. Only land port in South Bengal

Karkabhat - Megalithic burial site, Chhatisgarh
Dipadih- 7th cent temple complex, Chhatisgarh. (other: Ghotul - ancient tribal edu system, chhatisgarh. Sonabai - relief ornamentation)
Linganamakki reservoir - On Jog falls, Shravathi
Swabhiman Anchal - a cut-off area in Malkangiri, Orissa. A Maoist stronghold.
Okavango delta - inland river Delta in Botswana. Botswana is home to more no of African elephants than any other african country/
Nimu - village in Ladakh. Surrounded by Zanskar range. Confluence of Indus and Zanskar rivers
Point Pedro: On Jaffna peninsula, Sri Lanka
Chattogram, Mongla ports - Bangladesh
Nagarno-Karabakh region (also called artasakh) - landlocked, in south caucasus. Part of Azerbaijan

Static environment:

Food chain:

Aquatic ecosystem: mainly grazing. Terrestrial: mainly detritus.
Relationships:

Commensalism:

Cattle egret and livestck
Anemonefish/clownfish and anemones

High biodiversity - less yearly variation in biomass, higher productivity, increased resistance to alien species.

Corals:

Locations - Absent in Sunderbans (due to high influx of freshwater)

Found: Rann of Kutch, Gulf of manner, Lakshwadeep

Soils:

Laterite: Areas with high T and high rainfall. Poor in organic matter. Cut as bricks and used for house construction. Iron oxide and potash in excess. Poor in phosphorus , Ca and N.

Industrial location: factors:

Sugar industry: Shift from N to S: Reasons:

Longer crushing season in South
Production/hectare - higher in Sough. Grows well in tropical climate.
Sucrose content higher in tropical variety
Modern mills with modern machinery
Most mills in south In cooperative sector, where profit maximisation - not sole objective.

Mining industry:

Mica: India is largest producer and exporter of sheet mica in world. Near monopoly in production (60%). Reserves: Andhra (40%) > Rajasthan>Orissa, maharashtra, Bihar(2%) and Jharkhand (1%). However, in production, Jharkhand 3rd, after AP and Rajasthan
Mining lease constitutes just 0.15% of total geo area of the country. Of this, barely 20% is mined.
Provides raw material to fast growing sectors
Contri to GDP: 2.3-2.5%
leg framework:

Major minerals in Union list, minor in state.
MMDR Amendment act 2015: Mineral concession grants through auction, to bring transparency. estb of DMFs - grievances. National mineral exploration trust - incentivizing regional exploration to fill exploration gaps. More stringent penal provisions

Need for prior approvals and renewal removed for EODB and removing discretion.
Constitution of special courts by states for fast tack approvals
NMET - estb by notification of centre. Govrning body chaired by Minister of Mines. 2% royalty paid to trust. Fund maintained in public account of India. States govt conllect contri in Public accounts of states and transfer it to the former.

100% FDI via automatic route for metal and non-metal oes. Approval route for titanium bearing ores.
Star rating of mining leases to ensure sustainable development

National Mineral Poliy 2019: Pertains to non-coal and non-fuel minerals. Increase production of major minerals by 200 % in 7 yrs.

Exclusive Mining zones : in-principle statutary clearances for grant of mining lease
Right of first refusal for RP/PL holders
proposes to grant industry status to mining sector
Encourage private sector - revenue sharing model
Dedicated mineral corridors, use of coastal waterways and inland shipping. Provision of merger and acq. of mining entities and transfer of mining lease.
e-governance, IT enabled systems
Utilization of DMFs
introduces concept of intergenerational equity.
Inter-min body to institutionalize a mechanism for sustainable mining
Proposes a long term export import policy for providing stability to pvt sector

Sudoor drishti - pilot project of Indian Bureau on mines and NRSC - use of satellites in checking illegal mining
Rules on illegal mining - state govts
Mineral concessions systems - state govts grant licenses (RP, PL and ML). Prior approval of the Central Government required under Section 5 (1) of MMDR Act for grant of RP, PL and ML in respect of Atomic and Metallic & Non- Metallic Minerals specified in Parts ‘B’ and ‘C’ of the First Schedule to the Act.

Tenure of concession: increased from 30 to 50 yrs
Granted through auction

DMFs:

Annual budget is 6000 cr
Funds via additional 30% of royalty by existing miners, and 10% by miners grantd mines after 2015.

Sand Mining:

MoEF has for the first time released guidelines to monitor and check illegal sand mining. (Enforcement and monitoring Guidelines for Sand Mining 2020). To be enforced simultaneously with Sustainable Sand Mgmt Guidelines 2016, but when in conflict, the new ones will take precedence.

Guidelines push for online sale and purchase of sand to make the process transparent.

Crops:

Rice: High temp, humidity, rainfall. Alluvial clayey soil which can retain moisture

High-adaptability-to-soil-alkaline-to-acidic

Wheat - moderate temp and rainfall during growing season, bright sunshine at time of harvest. well drained loamy soil.

Wide adaptability. Tropical, sub-tropical, temperate, even cold tracts of far North. Can tolerate severe cold and snow.
Cool moist weather during major portion of growing period, followed by warm, dry at time of ripening

Coffee: heat, humidity, abundant rainfall. Direct sunight is harmful, planted under shade. Moderate slope. Water stagnation is harmful. Good sub-surface drainage, presence of humus, nitrogenous matter advantageous. Large labour force.
Sugarcane; Frost is detrimental. Deep rich loamy soils ideal, but can tolerate any kind of soil that can retain moisture. Soil not be too acidic or alkaline. Hot and humid climate, average temp and rainfall (75-150 cm)

India has largest area under cultivation in world. World’s 2nd largest producer after brazil.

Jute:

Warm and humid climate (24-37 C). Constant rain or water-logging is harmful
Sown: march to may. Harvested - June to Sept
India largest producer currently, but Bangladesh largest exporter.

Tea:

Warm and moist frost-free climate all through the year.
deep and fertile well-drained soil, rich in humus and organic matter. Acidic soil
requires 150-300 cm annual rainfall, distributed throughout the year
Relatively large proportion of phosphorus and potash in the soil gives special flavour to tea as is the case in Darjeeling.
India - 3rd largest exporter
Area, Prodn: Assam> WB

Groundnut:

best in the tropical climate and requires 20°-30°C temperature and 50-75 cm rainfall
highly susceptible to frost, prolonged drought, continuous rain and stagnant water
Both Kharif, Rabi

Oil:

Palm oil - 40% of India's agri import bill
Imprt: palm oil: 62%, Soya -21. sunflower-16

Sesamum: Gujarat largest
Tobacco:

50-100cm annual rainfall and 15-20o C temperature during growth period is ideal
Cannot tolerate >100 cm rainfall
Liberal and well distributed rainfall during initial growing seasons
Long length days
High relative humidity

Sugarcane:

In India sugarcane is cultivated all over the country from latitude 80 N to 330 N, except cold hilly areas like Kashmir valley, Himachal Pradesh and Arunachal Pradesh.
Tropical-India:45%-area,55%-production
BRazil>India
Sugar recovery is highest when the weather is dry with low humidity
During-ripening:

bright sunshine hours, cooler nights with wide diurnal variations and very little rainfall

2.4%

Groundnut:

3.6%-cropped-area

Irrigation:

Peninsular-India: Tank irrigation dominates. Difficult to dig canals
Canal - meghalaya and Assam

Soils:

Black: Rich in Lime, iron, Magnesia and alumina. Potash. lack in Phosphorus, N, organic matter.
Laterite:High-T,High-rainfall
Forest:

Loamy-and-silty-on-valley-side
Coarse-grained-in-upper-slope
Acidic-with-lowhumus-in-Himalayas

Peaty:

High-rainfall
High-humidity
Good-vegetation-growth
Rich-humus.
Organic-content-may-go-upto-40-50%
Heavy,black
Alkaline-at-places

Automobile industry:

Location factors

Raw material - iron and steel - has become somewhat redundant now
Labor - cheap and peaceful labor. Shift from North towards South due to peaceful labour available there. Strikes and unions in North India cause disruption
GOvt policies - eg Backward area development programme
Market: Eg - Punjab and Haryana - Tractors and big vehicles. Delhi - 2,3, and 4 wheelers.

Growth trend

Temporal factors

Post independence wars - need for development of automobile
Planning - focus on heavy industries - iron and steel => automobile.
Evergreen revolution - sustainable agri with tech advncement - mechanization - automobile industry.
1991, LPG - Service sector growth - IT sector jobs - urbalization, surplus incomes - demand grew.
2001 - Demographuc divident
2005 - woman empowerment - boost in demand of esp Moped and 2 wheelers (Why should boys have all the fun)
2018 - clean energy , FAME policy.

Minerals:

Coal:

GLobal reserves: USA > Russia > China > Australia> India (5th no)
Global production: China > USA > India
Global consumption: CHina > USA > India
Brazil: Leading producer in South America
Australia: A Leading producer. Rich coking coal deposits. India coking coal imports mainly from here.
S. Africa - only region in Africa with significant coal reserevs
Chinese coal - poor quality. Imports metallurgical coal from Australia.
North Antelope Rochelle coal mine, in Powder river basin of Wyoming, USA - world’s biggest coal mine
India’s imports: Indonesia > Australia
India’s reserves:

Reserves: Jh (26%) > Orissa (24%) > Chh (17%) > WB > MP > AP > Mh (These states acc for 90%)
More than 90% coking coal comes from Jh. Others - WB, MP
Prodn: Chh > Jh > Orissa
Gondwana coal - 98% of total reserves, 99% of production.

carbon content less compared to Carboniferous (almost absent in India)
India’s metallurgical grade and superior quality coal
Damuda series - Lower Gondwana age - 80% of prodn
coking, non-coking, bit, sub-bit obtained
Anthracite generally not found
Free from moisture, but contains S and P
Volatile compounds and ash - 13-30% - high
Basins of Damodar, Mahanadi, Son, Godavari, Wardha, Indravati, narmada, panch, Kanan, koel
Confined to peninsular plateau

Tertiary: 15-60 mn yrs old

Carbon content very low
Extra-peninsular mainly.
High S and moisture percentage
Assam, Meghalaya, Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Himalayan foothills of Darjeeling in West Bengal, Jammu and Kashmir, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Kerala, TN, Puducherry
Assam:

Makum coalfied most famous
Very low ash. Coking quality coal. High S => not suitable for metallurgical

Meghalaya: Garo, Khasi, jaintai. Darrangiri - Garo hills
Kalakot - Jammu, Chamba - HP
Tertiary - Lignite:

TN - 90%. (Neyveli lignite). largest lignite deposits in Southeast asia
Guj (katchch) , Raj - low quality

Tertiary - Peat:

Nilgiri hills, Kashmir valley, WB, Ganga Delta

Coking coal/Metallurgical coal: High C, less moisture, S, ash. (S is very bad for I&S industry)

Australia, Canada, USA are major producers

Lignite - 40-55% C content. underges spontaneous combustion => creates fire accidents in mines
Bit: 40-80%. Does not have traces of original vegetation
As of now, no coal mine in Bihar,

Thorium: India has 25% reserves. (Monazite sands) AP > TN > Orissa > Kerela > WB > Jh
VIndhyan system: stand over Cudappah rocjs, contain limestone, sandstone, shale, slates useful as building materials.
Locations:

Coal: 97% reserves are in valleys of Damodar, Son, ahanadi, Godavari
Most of metallic minerals are located in peninsular plateau in old crystaline rocks

Lithium:

Recently,India's-maiden-reserves-discovered-in-igneous rocks of the Marlagalla-Allapatna region of Karnataka’s
Reserves:Chile>Australia>Argentina
Prodn:Australia-52%

Gold:

World gold Council: India may have stocked 24-25k tonnes of gold
RBI bought 40 tonnes in FY 2019-20. TOtal holding- 653 tonnes
India’s gold demand for the full-year 2019 was 690.4 tonnes compared to 760.4 tonnes in 2018, down 9 per cent, according to WGC data.
Three gold fields in the country

Kolar ,Hutti (both in Karnataka) Ramgiri (Andhra Pradesh)

Natural gas:

Offshore > Onshore (eastern offshore - 38%, western offshore - 23%)

Bauxite:

Orissa largest producer, >50% bauxite resources
India- 5th largest. Australia- largest

Manganese:

Odissa - 44%
Karnataka 22%, Madhya Pradesh 12%, Maharashtra & Goa 7% Andhra Pradesh 4% and Jharkhand 2%
always available in combination with iron, laterite and other minerals
Presently, India is one of major importers
Largest producer - MP
World: South Africa
Steel Industry accounts for approximately 90% of the world demand for manganese.

Platinum:

Cubanite

Silver:

Rajasthan-87%-resources.Jharkhand 5%, Andhra Pradesh 4% and Karnataka 2%.

Diamond:

South-Indian-track-AP
Central-Indian-Panna-belt
Chhatisgarh: Behradin-Kodawali area in Raipur ,Tokapal, Dugapal, etc. areas in Bastar
Eastern:Mahanadi-godavari-valley

Uranium:

Dharwar-rock-system
Aravallis,rajasthan
Singbhum Copper belt (Jaduguda mines)
Udaipur, Alwar and Jhunjhunu districts of Rajasthan
Bhandara district of Maharashtra and Kullu district of Himachal Pradesh
Seshachalam forest and Sresailam

Rock systems:

Pre-Cambrian

Archaean system

Archaean Gneisses and Schists (Oldest, 4 bn yrs ago)

Oldest.
Solidification of molten MAgma. Crystalline
Known as the ‘Basement Comples'

Dharwar (4 bn- 1 bn yrs old)

Highly metamorphosed sedimentary (metamorphosis of Archaean and Schists),
Found in abundance in Dharwar distt of ktk
Jharkhand (Ranchi, Hazaribagh), Madhya Pradesh (Balaghat, Rewa), Chattisgarh (Bastar, Dantewara, Kanker), Odisha (Sundergarh, Keonjhar) and in the Aravalli between Jaipur and Palanpur.
Meghalayan-plateau
Extra-peninsular:Himalayas
Economically the most imp rocks - Gold, Mn, Cu, Pb, High grade iron - found in this.Uranium-also-found
Mn-found-in-almost-all-geological-formation

2. Purana systems: Pre-cambrian, Oldest metamorphosed rocks

Cuddapah

BEst form in Cuddapah system of Andhra Pradesh
Large deposits of Limestone
Fe, Mn, Cu, Co, Ni
In synclinal basins

Vindhyan:

Ancient sedimentary
Large areas of this are covered by Deccan trap
Have diamond-bearing regions from which Panna and Golconda diamonds have been mined
Devoid of metalliferous minerals. Stones, limestone, glass-making sand found

Dravidian system: Paleozoic. 600-300 mn yrs ago. Extra-peninsular region(Himalayan and Ganga plains). Very rare in peninsular India. (Note: name Dravidian is misleading)

Carboniferous period rocks fall under this

Aryan rock system (Upper carboniferous to recent)

Gondwana:

Contain 98% of India’s coal reserves. Carbon content lower than carboniferous. (since younger)
Iron, Copper, Uranium, Antimony
Sandstones, slates,
Sedimentary, young

Jurassic: due to marine transgressions. Shallow water deposits - Rajasthan, Kutchtch. East - Guntur, Rajahmundry. Rajmahal hills

Deccan trap :

Volcanic outburst from end of Cretacious to beginning of Eocene.
Thickness - 3000m along west, 600-800m along South, 800m in Kutch, 150m at eastern limit
Black cotton soil called regur.
Upper trap in Maharashtra and Saurashtra, middle in Central India and Malwa

Tertiary:

Eocene to Pliocene (60-7 mn yrs ago)
Himalayas born
India’s present form came into being in this period.

Quarternary:

Formation-of-Indo-gangetic-plain

Food chain:

Kopili-fault:From-Bhutan-Himalayas-to-Burmese-arc.

Facts:

Rohi:fertile-tracts-in-Rajasthan-plains
Bagar-semi-desert-area-west-of-aravallis
Thali/sandy-plain:North-of-Luni
Bluffs/Dhaya-Punjab-Haryana-plains
Salinity decreases with increase in latitude, but Highest salinity not at equator, but near tropics. Also, increases with increae in depth upto a point, and then decreases.
Uranium:

Weakly radioactive coz of long physical half life
Biological half life - avg time taken for human body to eliminate half the amount in body - 15 days
highest-numbered element to be found naturally in significant quantities on earth

Passes: https://www.pmfias.com/major-passes-india-himalayas-indian-sub-continent-khyber-pass-gomal-pass-bolan-pass-banihal-pass-shipki-la-nathu-la-jelep-la/

Pacific decadal oscillation - responsible for drying of NE. When SSTs are anomalously cool in the interior North Pacific and warm along the Pacific Coast, and when sea level pressures are below average over the North Pacific, the PDO has a positive value. When the climate anomaly patterns are reversed, negative.
Mining trend:

Offshore areas are in leading position, in terms of value of mineral production -share of 25.79% in the national output. Next - Orissa (12%), Chh (9.1), Raj (9)
2010-11: Public sector - dominant role (66% by value)

Madhya Pradesh (9) and Andaman and Nicobar (9) have the highest number of National Parks.
Maximum numbers of wildlife sanctuaries are present in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands (96) followed by Maharashtra (45)
South-Button,Andaman-smallest-NP-in-India.
Largest Biosphere Reserve:Gulf of Mannar
Smallest Biosphere Reserve: Panna
First Biosphere Reserve:Nilgiri
Galathea-bay-adjacent-to-Great-Nicobar-island.Entire-denotified.
Great Nicobar Biosphere Reserve (GNBR), UNESCO, comprises of the Galathea National Park and the Campbell Bay National Park.

Giant-leatherback-world's-largest-marine-turtle
Shompens,Nicobarese

Proposal-for-denotification:NBWL+approval-of-SC
Vagir-Kalvari-class-submarine

part of Indian Navy's Project-75

Agastya-lake:near-badami-cave-temples,Ktk
Deepor-Beel,Assam-drains-into-Brahmaputra
Kanwar-taal-Bihar-Ramsar-site-5-CE-species:

red-headed vulture, white-rumped vulture and Indian vulture – and two waterbirds, the Baer’s pochard (CR) and sociable lapwing (CR).

Ramsar-sites:

https://www.pmfias.com/ramsar-sites-india-ramsar-convention-wetlands/
Smallest-Renuka
Largst-Sunderbans

Islands:

Lakshwadweep:Part-of-Chagos-Laccadive-mountain-range

9-degree-channel:Lakshwadeweep-minicoy
8-degree:Minicoy-maldives
No-PVTGs
Amindivi Islands are the northernmost while Minicoy Island is the southernmost.
Cannanore-islands
e entire Lakshadweep group of islands has been declared as an organic agricultural area
The society in all islands is matriarchal.
Malayalam-in-all-islands,except-minicoy-Mahl-spoken

ioplastics production results in pollutants, due to the fertilizers and pesticides used in growing the crops. The bioplastics also contributes to more ozone depletion than the traditional plastics, and required extensive land use. Bioplastics increase stratospheric ozone depletion compared to conventional plastics; this is a result of nitrous oxide emissions during fertilizer application during industrial farming for biomass production.

Better-than-Cash-alliance:UN-capital-development-fund.India-is-a-member

Fire-alert-system:FSI

Amoghavarsha-disciple-of-Jinasena.ASHOKA-OF-SOUTH

SUNYA-SAMPADANA:Basavana's-Vachanas

Sangam-age: