Decolonisation and Under Development

The end of colonialism and triumph of nationalism became a marked feature of life in the newly emerged states free from European colonisers. Colonial historians argued that the colonial rule was a force for good, that it brought peace, stability and respite from violence for people in the colonies and that it operated through cooperation of people in the colonies and not by coercion. They created the infrastructure for progress by building railways, roads, bridges, telegraph’s and irrigation projects. The French took pride in the fact that rice value quadrupled in Indochina under their rule.

Nationalist leaders and scholars in the colony argued that under colonial rule the colonies became a part of the global capitalist system this did not lead to the development of an industrialised capitalist economy. The colonies were integrated into the world economy in a subordinate position. They also argue that the colonial state everywhere followed the policy of divide and rule which intensified ethnic and religious conflicts.

Some of the main causes for disintegration of European empires are – thinking and policies at global level; considerations at the level of the colonial powers; momentum created by liberation movement in the colonies

Ideas which floated during the Second World War and the experiences of participation in the battles in war stimulated liberation movements in all colonies. In 1941 the Atlantic charter of eight articles signed by countries on the Allied side under which all people should be given the right to choose their own form of government and that nations should not expand by taking territories from other nations. USA And Soviet Union were themselves against colonialism.

After Second World War the Europeans powers decided to voluntarily grant independence to colonies because the war had exhausted them militarily and economically and also there was acceptance of ideas of self-determination, freedom and democracy. British Historians argued that Britain accepted the burden of colonial administration and that they were always uncomfortable with authoritarianism and racist ideology is inseparable from colonial authority. In India in 1942 people demonstrated unparalleled heroism and militancy in a widespread rebellion against british with the quit India movement.

End of colonialism came as a result of rise of nationalism and liberation movements in the colonies. Establishment of foreign rule was not welcomed anywhere. In Africa land users are often relocated to make the land available to Europeans and this led to resentment and protest movements. There was also resistance to the outright imposition of taxes such as the attacks in Africa. The year 1857 saw the biggest revolt against british rule in India. The liberation struggles receive support from the developments during the First World War. After the Second World War nationalist became active everywhere. The surrender of Japan in 1945 created hope of establishment of their own government amongst people in South East Asian countries. The post- Second World War period so beginning of disintegration of European Empire as also the onset of Cold War the colonial powers abdicated only when they found it impossible to continue to occupy their colonies because of the Spirit of self assertion, movements of resistance and rebellions.

The process of decolonisation emerged in the world during the later half of 18th century. It continued for more than 200 years and resulted in independence of colonies. This process was triggered, strengthened and sustained by number of cultural, intellectual, political and economic factors.

1. Intellectual factors- The spread of ideas of enlightenment had resulted in growth of awakening among the natives which led to demand for political and administrative reforms. The reforms initiated by colonial masters also helps in growth of a further awakening. Spread of modern western education and growing contact with West and instilled awakening among the people of colonies who realised the differences in Western society and colonial society realising the true nature of colonial empire. This awakening triggered national movements In colonies for independence which resulted in fall of colonial empires.
2. Political Factors- The nature of colonial regime was exploitative. The native suffered immensely and the discontent emerging from the sufferings compelled natives to rise against colonial rule. Defied of people of colonies for their independence resulted in decolonisation.
3. Social and Humanitarian aspects- During the 2 World Wars soldiers of colonies fought wars for their colonial masters. They saw the outside world for the first time. They came in contact with new ideas during the war and when they returned home the soldiers were no longer the same. These awakened soldiers were in the forefront against colonial regime. The world war greatly weakened the colonial powers like Britain and France. They were no longer in a position to maintain their dominance on colonies through military force. The ideas put forward by on Entente power of World War I and the Allied nations of World War II inspired the people of colonies to expect independence. The principle of self-determination was an important component of Woodrow Wilson’s 14 points and the Atlantic charter.
4. The new power equation created by World War II and the Cold War followed by division of countries into US bloc and Soviet bloc was also very significant for decolonisation. Neither USA nor USSR had much interest in colonial regimes. Commencement of Cold War force USA to persuade Western colonial powers to give up their colonies because the culmination of colonial rule was facilitating Communist expansion. Soviet Union were supporting their struggle for independence and as a result colonies were getting closer to it and popularity of communism was spreading.
5. United Nations played a big role to ensure the success of process of decolonisation. UN supported the quest of people for their independence from colonial rule as and when disputes were brought to it. In 1962 United Nations established a special committee to oversee decolonisation.
6. Economic- increased economic investments in colonies. Loss of men and material. Colonies were no longer as profitable as before,

As a result of the combined effect of all these factors all colonies gained independence by 1993. The colonial empires disintegrated  and the process of decolonisation was completed.

Factors Constraining Development Latin America and Africa

Simon Bolivar and Liberation of Latin America

Simon Bolivar was a great nationalist freedom fighter in the independence struggle of Latin America. He fought for almost 2 decades for the liberation of latin American territories from Spanish colonial rule. He was born in a noble family of Venezuela in 1783 and received his education in Spain. It was during his stay in Europe that he came in contact with the liberal and progressive ideas of enlightenment. He saw the transformation been brought about by the French revolution in Europe and was also deeply influenced by ideas of American revolution which he brought forth in the struggle for liberation of Latin America.

Why Liberation Movement in Latin America?

1. Latin America was a Spanish colony. It was divided into a number of administrative units ruled by Military governors on behalf of the Spanish crown.
2. Latin American colonies were white dominated just like colonies of North America. They were the people who migrated from Europe but had been living in Latin America for generations. They gradually developed a unique identity.
3. Spread of ideas of enlightenment, influence of American revolution and the revolutionary transformations in Europe resulted in a growth of Nationalist awakening among Latin American and by closing decade of 18 century movements for liberation had started.
4. Establishment of Napoleonic rule in Spain in 1808 gave impetus to the movement for liberation in Latin America. San Joe Martin was a prominent only leader who fought against Spanish colonial rule. In 1810, Simon Bolivar returned to Venezuela from Europe and started leading the fight for liberation.

Simon Bolivar

Ideas and Vision

• deeply influenced by ideas of American revolution and French Revolution.
• man of liberal and progressive outlook.
• strongly against slavery.
• political philosophy revolved around the office of elected lifelong president,
• hereditary Senate,
• elected lower house of parliament
• recognition of the freedom of citizens.
• Simone used to carry books of Adam Smith and Walter with him.
• supporter of free speech and doctrine of laissez-faire.

Contributions

• He fought against colonial regime for more than 15 years. He liberated Venezuela in 1813, Colombia in 1819, Ecuador in 1821 and Peru in 1825. Bolivia is named so in his honour. He spread modern, progressive and liberal ideas among the people and intensify the level of awakening. This marks the beginning of a new phase in history of Latin America. Though his ideas were not appreciated at the beginning but later on their efficacy was realised by latin Americans and Bolivar was held as a liberator.

Failures

• Simon Bolívar wanted to create a United States of Latin America on the lines of United States of America but he failed to forge strong bond of political unity among latin Americans. His vision was not appreciated much either by the liberals or the Conservatives because for liberals they were too radical and for conservatives too liberal. He was overthrown in 1830 and died in a state of neglect as he was the most hated man of Latin America at the time of his death. His vision of a GrColumbia could not be realised and after his death Latin America was fragmented into a number of political units ruled by military dictators.

Factors Constraining Development of Latin America

1. Long history of colonial rule left behind a lasting impact on Latin America because the colonial masters exploited Latin America for benefits of metropolis.
2. Level of awakening among the masses was very low because the latin Americans failed to realise the significance of liberal and progressive ideas of Simon Bolívar. They failed to stand against the tyranny of military rulers.
3. The level of industrialisation was negligible in Latin America at the time of Spanish colonial rule.
4. The colonial legacy in form of domination of European institutions also obstructed the process of development in Latin America.
5. The resources are also limited in Latin America because of this the process of economic advancement could not get much momentum for more than a century even after liberation.
6. Political fragmentation of Latin America proved to be a hurdle in the way for development.

Malaysia

In the aftermath of Second World War, the imperial nations began transferring power to the indigenous people in their respective colonies. This process is termed as “Decolonization”.

• Economic problems:
• roads and infrastructure were greatly damaged by Second World War, they had to be rebuilt.
• International commodity prices and exchange rates were in a constant state of flux due to the Post-WW2 reorganizations
• invention of synthetic rubber harmed the rubber plantations, owners were gradually cutting down wages and workforce. The resultant unemployment was a breeding ground for communist insurgency and political unrest.
• Malaya was liberated from Japanese occupation in 1945, but there were difficult problems to be faced before the British were prepared to withdraw.
• It was a complex area which would be difficult to organize.
• nine states each ruled by a sultan, two British settlements, Malacca and Penang, and Singapore, a small island less than a mile from the mainland.
• The population was multiracial: mostly Malays and Chinese, but with some Indians and Europeans as well.
• Malaysia’s racial composition was: Indigenous Malay people > Chinese > Indians
• Post-war British plans to unite the administration of Malaya under a single crown colony called the Malayan Union met with strong opposition, Malays opposed weakening of the Malay rulers and granting citizenship to ethnic Chinese.
• Malayan Union, established in 1946 and consisting of all the British possessions in the Malay Peninsula with the exception of Singapore, was quickly dissolved and replaced by the Federation of Malaya, which restored the autonomy of the rulers of the Malay states under British protection.
• It was decided to group the states and the settlements into the Federation of Malaya (1948), while Singapore remained a separate colony.
• Each state had its own legislature for local affairs; the sultans retained some power, but the central government had firm overall control.
• All adults had the vote and this meant that Malays, the largest group, dominated affairs.
• Chinese Communist guerrillas (Malayan Communist Party) led by Chin Peng, who played a leading role in the resistance to the Japanese, now began to stir up strikes and violence against the British in support of an independent communist state.
• The British decided to declare an state of emergency in 1948, and in the end they dealt with the communists successfully until 1960.
• Their tactics were to resettle into specially guarded villages all Chinese suspected of helping the guerrillas.
• It was made clear that independence would follow as soon as country was ready for it, this ensured that the Malays remained firmly pro-British and gave very little help to the communists, who were Chinese.
• Malay Party under leader Tunku Abdul Rahman, joined forces with the main Chinese and Indian groups to form the Alliance Party, which won 51 out of the 52 seats in the 1955 elections.
• This seemed to suggest stability and the British were persuaded to grant full independence in 1957 through peaceful talks and negotiations, when Malaya was admitted to the Commonwealth.The Federation of Malaysia was set up in 1963.
• Malaya was running well under Tunku's leadership, and its economy, based on exports of rubber and tin, was the most prosperous in south-east Asia. In 1961, when the Tunku proposed that Singapore and three other British colonies, North Borneo (Sabah), Brunei and Sarawak, should join Malaya to form the Federation of Malaysia, Britain agreed
• But opposition of Indonesia, Philippines and Brunei (1963)
• United Nations investigation team large majority in favour of the union, the Federation of Malaysia was officially proclaimed (September 1963).
• Brunei decided not to join, and eventually became an independent state within Commonwealth (1984).
• Singapore became part of Malaysia on 16 September 1963
• Malaysia being a new political entity formed from the merger of the Federation of Malaya with North Borneo, Sarawak and Singapore.
• end of a 144-year period of British rule in Singapore, beginning with the founding of modern Singapore by Sir Stamford Raffles in 1819.
• The union, however, was unstable due to distrust and ideological differences between leaders of the State of Singapore and the Federal Government of Malaysia. Such issues resulted in frequent disagreements relating to economics, finance and politics.
• Federation brought heightened tensions including a conflict with Indonesia and Singapore's eventual exit in 1965.
• Singapore left the federation within two years due to political and economic disputes, and declared itself a republic (1965). Although Singapore decided to leave the Federation, the rest of the Federation continued successfully.
• post-independent Malaysia kept Islam and Malay as national religion and national languages respectively. Govt also provided reservation quotas in favour of indigenous Malay.
• But the Chinese were ahead of the other two races in terms of education and economic opportunities. They formed an opposition party and won second general election, which resulted into racial riots and a state of emergency.
• The disenchanted Chinese ethnic groups were folded into the ranks of communist insurgents. The ongoing Cold war and Vietnam war further aggravated the matters with involvement of foreign players. Consequently, the insurgency continued to disturb Malaysian peace efforts and nation building till the late 1980’s.