Class Notes 4 You

18वीं शताब्दी के उत्तरार्ध में अमेरिकी क्रांति (1776-1783) और फ्रांसीसी क्रांति (1789) के रूप में दो महत्वपूर्ण घटनाएं देखी गईं। माना जाता है कि इन दो घटनाओं ने अपने उपन्यास सामाजिक, राजनीतिक और आर्थिक विचारों के कारण आधुनिक दुनिया की नींव रखी, जिनकी प्रासंगिकता अभी भी अपरिहार्य है। आधुनिक विश्व की नींव में अमेरिकी क्रांति की भूमिका:  अमेरिकी क्रांति के कारण दुनिया का पहला लिखित संविधान बना।  यह दुनिया भर के कई देशों के लिए एक प्रेरणा का काम करता है।  उदाहरण: भारतीय संविधान ने अमेरिकी संस्था से मौलिक अधिकार, सत्ता का पृथक्करण, उपाध्यक्ष की संस्था आदि जैसे विचारों को अपनाया है। स्वतंत्रता की घोषणा ने घोषणा की कि सभी पुरुष समान हैं।  इसने समानता के आधुनिक विचार का मार्ग प्रशस्त किया। अमेरिकी क्रांति ने जीवन के अधिकार, स्वतंत्रता और खुशी की खोज जैसे उपन्यास विचारों को जन्म दिया और आधुनिक दुनिया में हर सरकार इन्हें बढ़ावा देना चाहती है। सरकार के रिपब्लिकन स्वरूप यानी लोगों को अपनी सरकार चुनने के अधिकार की परिकल्पना की गई थी।  उदाहरण: अरब वसंत का मुख्य लक्ष्य सत्तावा...

प्रथम विश्व युद्ध को कई लोग सभी युद्धों को समाप्त करने वाला युद्ध मानते थे।  फिर भी अगले बीस वर्षों के दौरान हुई घटनाओं ने दुनिया को एक और युद्ध की ओर अग्रसर किया, जो बड़े पैमाने पर बहुत बड़ा था।  इस अवधि में कई चुनौतियों का सामना करना पड़ा।  हालाँकि, लोकतांत्रिक शासन की स्थापना दो युद्धों के बीच सबसे बड़ी चुनौती थी।  इस खेदजनक स्थिति के लिए जिम्मेदार कारण हैं:- 1. प्रथम विश्व युद्ध में मित्र राष्ट्रों की जीत के साथ, राजशाही, अभिजात वर्ग और कुलीनतंत्र की प्राचीन व्यवस्था वैध नहीं रही। 2. अधिनायकवादी शासन का उदय: जर्मनी में सत्ता में हिटलर का उदय, फासीवादियों का उग्रवादी उदय  इटली में मुसोलिनी ने आतंक का शासन शुरू किया।  3. जापान में सैन्य फासीवाद: उपनिवेशवाद से बचने के लिए जापान एशिया का एकमात्र देश था।  4. अल्पसंख्यक अधिकारों और जातीय लक्ष्यों का मुद्दा: अल्पसंख्यक अधिकारों की खराब अवधारणा ने यहूदियों और रोमनों के जातीय लक्ष्यीकरण और साम्राज्यवादी विचारों के विकास की सुविधा प्रदान की। 5. अति-राष्ट्रवाद और भर्ती के उदय ने अंतरराष्ट्रीय राजनीति में सैन्...

The second half of the 18th century had witnessed two important events in the form of American revolution (1776-1783) and French Revolution (1789). These two events are believed to have laid the foundation of the modern world due its novel social, political and economic ideas whose relevance is still indispensable. Role of American Revolution in the foundation of modern world:  1. The American revolution led to the first written constitution of the world. This serves as an inspiration for many nations across the world. Example: Indian constitution has adopted ideas like Fundamental rights, separation of power, institution of vice president etc from the American institution. 2. The declaration of independence Proclaimed that All men are equal. This paved the way for the modern- day idea of equality. 3. The American revolution gave birth to novel ideas like Right to life, liberty, and pursuit of happiness and in the modern world every government seeks to promote these. 4. Republican ...

The First World War was considered by many to be a war to end all wars. Yet the developments during the next twenty years led the world into another war, much larger in scale. This period faced many challenges.  However, the establishment of the democratic regime was the major challenge that arose between the two wars.  The reasons attributed to this sorry state of affairs are: 1. With the victory of the Allies in World War I, the ancient systems of monarchy, aristocracy, and oligarchy ceased to be legitimate. 2. Rise of the Totalitarian regime: Rise of Hitler to power in Germany, militant rise of fascists under  Mussolini in Italy unleashed a reign of terror.  3. Military Fascism in Japan: Japan had been the only country in Asia to escape colonization.  4. Issue of Minority Rights and Ethnic Targets: Poor conceptualization of minority rights facilitated ethnic targeting of Jews and Romans and growth of imperialistic ideas. 5. Rise of ultra - nationalism and con...

Factors leading to collapse of Soviet Union and soviet communism 1985-91 The disintegration of Soviet Union marks end of an era which began with rise of Communist USSR and its eventual fall, with USA left as the lone superpower in the world. Reasons For Disintegration of USSR Weakness of Soviet Socialist economy Socialist economy of USSR was characterised by centralised planning. Every economic activity was under state ownership and private ownership of any means of production was not allowed. The state agencies decided what was to be produced and how much . There was no scope for private initiative in the soviet socialist economy. The workers and managers were paid meagre salaries by the state to meet their basic necessities. This state controlled economy was highly successful till the 1960s , however, thereafter the motivation of people declined. There was decline in standards of living of people. Production had stagnated and a serious economic crisis engulfed Russia. Limitations ...

Need Need for reconstruction had forced European leaders to work together with maximum possible cooperation. The world war 2 had struck Europe badly many had died and a lot more were injured. In order to avoid economic crisis faced after the 1st world war cooperation was the only way. Factors responsible for the European unity and evolution of the European Community Bitter experience of post world war and developments was also responsible for beginning of the process of unification. After the 1st world war European nations followed the policy of protectionism which further intensified the crises. They were hence, not willing to commit the same mistake twice. Need to curb the spirit of nationalism was an emergent necessity after the Second World War, as it was responsible for war. European nations wanted to create a Supra National Institution to develop one European identity and curb nationalistic fervour. French quest for security was important in unification, as after the First Wo...

The end of colonialism and triumph of nationalism became a marked feature of life in the newly emerged states free from European colonisers . Colonial historians argued that the colonial rule was a force for good, that it brought peace, stability and respite from violence for people in the colonies and that it operated through cooperation of people in the colonies and not by coercion. They created the infrastructure for progress by building railways, roads, bridges, telegraph’s and irrigation projects. The French took pride in the fact that rice value quadrupled in Indochina under their rule. Nationalist leaders and scholars in the colony argued that under colonial rule the colonies became a part of the global capitalist system this did not lead to the development of an industrialised capitalist economy. The colonies were integrated into the world economy in a subordinate position. They also argue that the colonial state everywhere followed the policy of divide and rule which inten...

Latin America and Bolivar June 24, 1821, Simón Bolí­ var, the great Liberator, led his forces against the Span­ish Army at the Battle of Carabobo . The Spanish had not yet been defeated across South America, but the Spanish monar­chy no longer had the will to fight back. The rest of the battles — in­cluding the Battle of Pinchincha on May 24, 1822 — finished up what Carabobo had esta­blished that South Ameri­ca’s many republics wanted to be sovereign . Carabobo “was more than a battle. It was a geopolitical cam­paign” . After Bolívar’s armies de­feated the Spanish  the new States that emerged from Gran Co­lombia (Colombia and Venezuela) down to Bolivia (1825) produced a dynamic sense of their own sove­reignty . Carabobo was “an impor­tant step towards the whole inde­pendence of South America”. U.S. President James Monroe on December 2, 1823, crafted the Monroe Doctrine. This policy suggested that now that European powers had lost thei...