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According to Vahan, Locke's thoughts revolve around individuals, that is, the priority of renunciation exists in Locke's thoughts. Locke's idea of freedom of individuals is the central point of liberalism. Locke said that the state should not interfere in the work of individuals, that is, it is also an exponent of the principle of non-intervention. Following are the facts about Locke being liberal: Locke supported a limited and constitutional state by dividing the powers of the state. Locke said that due to autocracy there would be anarchy in the state and the role of the individual in the patriarchal state would be only that of a slave. Locke has described the origin of the state and the functions of the state in his famous work "Two Treatises of Government". He talks about limiting the powers of the state. James Tully said about Locke that Locke is the father of liberalism and the originator of the theory of nonintervention because he is against anarchy and com...

Manx considered Capitalism as thereat to Humanism. He felt that Capitalist class is exploitative and gave a call- "WORKERS OF THE WORLD UNITE, You HAVE NOTHING TO LOSE BUT CHAINS" In his theory of revolution, he gave concept of Socialism as transition phase where Dictatorship of Proletarian is established. This would later form a classless stateless society i.e., Communism.  This inspired socialism which turned to be leaders started a meta ideology. Its leaders started movement against capitalist class to remove them from power in Europe and Asia.  The capitalism was threatened and the movement affected Profit and security of bourgeoisie.  The capitalist state backed the bourgeoisie class. It showed democratic features which attracted masses towards them. This largely happened in context of RIGHTS.  A liberal democratic order was promoted by capitalist class. This changed socio-political scenario as follows:  The State backed Right to speech, dissent, freedom ...

In the nineteenth century, John Stuart Mill was an activist and political thinker in Britain. He was one of the most ardent supporters of and practitioners of utilitarianism, a school of thought that held that an action was only considered appropriate if it benefited the majority of society. In his essay "On Liberty," he insists vehemently that the protection of one's freedom of thought regardless of how heinous or moral and, by extension, one's freedom to express oneself based on that thought are crucial to the upkeep of individual liberty. The concept of freedom of speech and thought proposed by Stuart Mill: The Law of Harm: This holds that the state is only permitted to restrict an individual's freedom for the purpose of preventing that individual from causing harm to others. Mill aims to demonstrate that society should never arbitrarily suppress opinions. Expression freedom: He gave four justifications for the need for freedom of speech, even for those who ho...

One of the most influential thinkers in the fields of economics, ethics, human rights, and liberty is J.S. Mill. Given his work "On the Subjection of Women," in which he advocates for women's education and "perfect equality," Mill is also cited as an early feminist. When it came to the issue of women, Mill applied the principles of liberalism to the issue and advocated for improving their position by providing them with opportunities for employment, suffrage, and education. He thought of this as a problem that affected everyone, not just women. In his book "On the Subjection of Women," he argued that society should be organized on the basis of "reason" rather than "accident of birth" principles like sex. Plant held that human person is completely a result of childhood, as opposed to the consequence of one's natural sex. Mill was most concerned about equality as a constitutional right. Mill believed that marriage was comparable...

In the thoughts of Locke, the father of liberalism, the father of empiricism, the creator of democracy, the individual is central.  Locke presented his ideas in his book Two Treatises of Government in which he describes the origin of the state and the functions of the state. Lock said that individuals choose the government with consent, but the state does not have the freedom to set restrictions on the freedom of individuals, that is, it is a supporter of the non-intervention policy of the state. Locke said that a person acquires property by his labour, i.e. Locke is a supporter of individuals' acquisition of property and protection of property. Sabine comments on Locke, saying that Locke establishes two facts. Establishment Of Community Establishment of Government But Locke's community is also formed by the individuals and the government is also formed with the consent of the individuals. Locke said that the government does not need to control the people, that is, the gover...

Locke is considered as Father or Liberalism. He focussed father of an individual rights of liberty and property life and a limited state. His thought is believed to form basis of American Political system. Locke in his work Two Treatises of Government, promotes his Social Contract theory between civil society and state. His theory gives a limited power to state as he considers man to be rational. He gives inviolable right to life and property which cannot be taken by state. His rights further include dignity, liberty, right against foreign domination etc. He even gives the right to revolt to people if State is unable to fulfil its commitment. American political system includes a BILL OF RIGHTS provided inviolable rights to life, liberty and property except in severe circumstances. The separation of power principle is also found in works of Locke. This is reflected in America with 3 organs of government - Judiciary, Executive and Legislature (Congress). The founding fathers of American...

The father of liberalism, the father of democracy, the creator of empiricism, Locke's ideas were most influenced by property, life and liberty. Locke, while writing his views in his famous work 'Two Treatises of Government', says that a person can earn property by his labour is and also protects. It is clear from Locke's ideas of property acquisition that if a person has property, then he is powerful. Hobbes also supported capitalism but it exists. Hobbes said that individuals should hand over all powers to the state on the basis of consent, but Locke while rendering the principle of non-intervention of the state, talked about the state remaining limited and constitutional. Locke said that the government has been created for the protection of life, all the powers are vested in the individuals. Locke's ideas have the support of powerful people because- Locke tells a person to acquire property. Property would be owned by the individual  Individuals will have the freed...

Young Marx had concept of ALIENATION. Marx believed that Capitalist is an "instrument of bourgeoisie" and is unable to favour worker. Since economic condition of workers become poor, they lose Human essence and become alienated. Human essence, as per Marx, lies in WORKING. Work is for own welfare, earning livelihood (existence) and showing creativity and innovation, But in capitalist society, man becomes cog in the wheel. He loses individual initiatives and thus Human essence. Marx connects this loss of essence to Alienation which occurs at different levels.Man becomes Alienated from his labour as capitalism demands working for Market and not for self. Then working continuously for-profit motive creates gap not only between Labour class among each other’s but also, bourgeois class. Finally, the man is unable to use his creativity which makes life monotonous. This cause Alienation from self. Marx tries to awaken the worker class by saying that "Idea is false consciousness...

Man understands the importance and benefits of balancing social and individual interest. So, man is able to live a social life in the state of nature. In Hobbes, state of nature was pre-social (one man after another man) and pre-political (political authority, was needed). But in Locke, it was pre-political. Locke gives a contrasting picture of state of nature in comparison of Hobbes. His state of nature is peaceful where order and good will prevailed. This was possible because of the presence of natural laws. Since man has reason and man could comprehend natural laws. In works of Locke, we find the justification of superiority of natural laws and natural rights. For Locke, natural law is a higher law and positive law should conform to the principles of natural law. Here we can see a continuity between the thoughts of Locke and Aristotle. Since Locke was the supporter of natural law tradition, like Aristotle. Locke also believes ultimate power lies at the community. Locke is known as t...

The concept of possessive individualism is related to the concept of capitalist class. Hobbes belonged to the age of capitalism. Individualism and materialism were the philosophies supporting capitalism.  According to Hobbes, the nature of man is self-centred and materialist. Hence, Hobbesian man is not a social man and not an idealist person. Man is materialist. So, man desires material pleasure. It means man desires property. Hence, the security of life and property are the reasons behind creation of state. Hobbes represented the philosophy of emerging capitalist class. Capitalism in its initial stage required strong state to give protection. Thus, his philosophy is a vindication of the interest of capitalist class of his age.  Possessive individualism means the belief that whatever man owes it emerges out of his hard work and labour. Society has no contribution to it. Hobbes also believes that man is self-centered and self-interested and to man is capable of thinking about ...

The views of Hobbes, the exponent of social agreement, are individualistic. The one who gave all of the atoms to the person, that is, the ideas of Halas are based on physics, geometry and psychology. Hobbes wrote in his book Leviathan that all power should rest with the king.Due to which his thoughts are seen as supporters of dictatorship and autocracy. Commenting on the views of Hobbes, McPherson said that the views of Hobbes are possessive individualists. Because Hobbes has talked about giving all the powers in the hands of one person. McPherson said that Hobbes's ideas are influenced by markets and he is also a supporter of markets.  Because he talks about protecting the interests of the capitalists. If the state is powerful then it must be a supporter of capitalism. McPherson writes in his famous work "The Political Theory of Passive individualism" that Hayes is a supporter of the powerful state and the sovereign state. According to Hobbes, only a powerful and despo...

Machiavelli has given his theory of statecraft in his book The Prince which is known as the best book written on the subject of statecraft. Statecraft means the art of management of power. Machiavelli's book is influenced by the life of Caesar Borgia who is the hero of Machiavelli's book The Prince.  His book is addressed to Lorenzo II. "The Prince establishes the tradition of political realism.  According to Machiavelli, in order to make successful policies, it is Necessary that such policies should be based" Man is depicted as materialist He is concerned with improvement of his present life. He was the first person to suggest a real understanding of human nature. One who is concerned with ought ‘What ought to be and neglects what is', 'what ought to be is bound to fail. Machiavelli establishes a definite link between individual psychology and the nature of political institutions. Thus, Machiavelli should also be treated as Forerunner of the school of behav...

Aristotle considers equality with equals and unequal treatment with unequal to be synonymous with equality. According to Aristotle, the desire for equality is the root cause of revolution. According to them, the rich class hates the poor, while the poor class has a sense of hatred towards the rich. Aristotle's idea of equality appears to be related to practical experien ofces. Apart from the natural disparity, they also rationalize the inequality prevailing among the individuals in the society at the practical level. Aristotle described slaves as having zero conscience and women as having low conscience. They talk about determining the distribution of posts, services and goods in the society by the distributive method in proportion to the contribution made by the individual to the society. Aristotle also expressed his views on equality and disparity on the basis of biological facts. Explaining the justification of slavery, Aristotle said that the way the body has inseparable and h...

Machiavelli is given the noun of the first modern thoughts because his thoughts are based on practical method and not on medieval method. Machiavelli in his great work Prince said that the ruler means the prince should be free from fear. He should have the courage of a lion and the agility of a fox. When the qualities of both a lion and a fox are present in a prince, then only he can rule. Just as the lion is determined to protect itself from other animals, but it does not have the skills to cut the net. Similarly, the fox is skilled in cutting nets but cannot protect itself from the wolf. According to Machiavelli, the ruler should have fox-like qualities to protect from factions and lionlike qualities in times of revolution, war, violence. According to Sabine, her views were more influenced by her times and situation. Because the fragmentation of Italy is one of the important events of his period. Dunning has also termed Machiavelli as his infant, which was the result of his circumsta...

Republic as the implementation of idea of Justice .Justice has been described as the first virtue of a society, by Rawls.It is the most fundamental basis on which the edifice of every state is built. A State can continue so long as people consider it just. The importance of the theory of justice in Plato’s work can be seen as even the subtitle of the masterpiece. ‘The Republic’ is ‘Concerning Justice’. Justice is the main ideal that Plato aspires for, because it signifies stability and has external character, and goes about incorporating it in his Republic. The main concern of Plato was to create Athens as an ideal State. For Plato, the State was the ideal, of which justice was the reality. The methodology used by Plato to arrive at this was dialectics. Through his book Republic written in the form of a dialogue. Plato arrived at some observations. Justice was not simply doing your duty, but also a source of virtue. Moreover, it was better to be just than to be unjust. Plato believed...

Plato wrote The Republic, a Socratic dialogue about justice, the order and character of the just city-state, and the just man, around 375 BC. It is Plato's most well-known work and one of the most intellectually and historically significant works of political theory and philosophy. The Republic by Plato is a work that talks about how important it is to be fair in the world and how being fair makes you happy. It is a book that talks about the ideal city and how just and philosophical governance can make people happy. Today, Plato's The Republic is a significant part of the Western literary canon. In this book, Plato asks the ultimate questions about happiness and justice, and the answers to those questions are constantly changing. Additionally, his book is essential for learning to question what is actually known. In all fields, this ability to question is essential. The "Constitution of Plato's Ideal state" is the most important part of "The Republic. “He int...

Plato is normative and he uses deductive reasoning whereas Aristotle uses deductive as well as inductive logic. Aristotle used the imperial method when he studied 158 constitutions of his time. Aristotle theory of evaluation is also based on empirical investigation. Aristotle uses a method of biology where he classifies the constitution thus, from Aristotle the tradition of scientific study of politics began. This is the reason professor Maxey calls Plato as the father of political philosophy and Aristotle as the father of political science. Plato’s book republic is not a book on politics primarily it is a book on ethics. Aristotle’s book titled political is primarily dealing with the subject of politics. As a father of political science Aristotle has given birth to the number of ideologies/ideological perspectives- convictism, Liberalism, communalism, etc. It was Aristotle who treated political science as the master science he rightfully deserves as known as the father of political sc...

Machiavelli, known as Italy's Chanakya, was born after the medieval period. Which was greatly influenced by the situation at that time. According to Sabine, Machiavelli's ideas were heavily influenced by his country and times. Because of the Renaissance, he was an opponent of the Church but not an opponent of religion. At the time of Machiavelli, Italy was divided into 5 different provinces and the greater influence of the Church was evident. Which was the internal problem of Italy. France and England existed as his external problems. All these circumstances influenced the thoughts of Machiavelli. Machiavelli said in The Prince that a prince should not be religious. But it should be moral. If necessary, he should resort to deceit, lies, punishment etc. A prince should have the strength of a lion and the cunning of a fox. Because he talked about establishing the unity of Italy, therefore in his view it is necessary to have a powerful prince for the unity of Italy. Who can protec...

This statement is the best example of Aristotle's principle of golden mean. Aristotle believes that moderation is the best way of life. Polity is the best practicable form of government for following reasons: Polity is a golden mean between two extremes- Oligarchy and democracy. Polity avoids extreme features of the 2 systems, Polity in the rule middle class. It is the rule of neither few nor many poor. Thus, it does not have problem of vices of two systems.  Rule of the middle class is better because rich people do not have the habit of obedience to law whereas poor people lack the ability to rule.  Both rich and poor have natural hatred against each other and both trust the middle class more than each other.  Both rich and poor are naturally inclined to commit crime. Thus, the rule of these classes that is rich and poor is not conducive for political stability and health of the society. Middle class have the habit of obedience to law. Middle class possesses property so ...