Economic Development and Political Change

Land Reforms

Land reforms were necessary to ensure that fruits of independence could reach the common people because political independence was meaningless without social economic independence.

Land was an important source of income for majority of Indian population because agriculture was the main subsistence activity. In 1936 at the Faizpur session of Congress resolutions were adopted for empowerment of peasants and tenant cultivators. The resolution demanded abolition of intermediaries, reduction in land rent and land revenue, abolition of feudal dues and fixation of tenure for tenant cultivators. As the influence of socialism increased in the Congress demands concerning common peasants and tenant cultivators had continued to increase. Implementation of land reforms after Independence was the result of the same.

Need for Land Reforms

1. Land reforms for a countermeasure against colonial legacy. During british rule a number of land settlements were implemented like permanent settlement, ryotwari settlement, Mahalvari settlement et cetera. In the settlements landlords were considered as the owners of land and ownership rights of ordinary peasants were taken away. The land settlements resulted in concentration of land holdings in hands of a few.
2. There was hence a need to ensure equitable distribution of land and to achieve this land reforms were introduced by government after Independence.
3. India adopted a socialist pattern of state after Independence. In such a state system of equitable distribution of resources so that no citizen is excessively rich or poor. Land reforms were aimed to implement the socialist ideas.
4. Land reforms were also based on the concept of welfare state. The level of industrialisation in India at the time of Independence was very low. Agriculture was the mainstay of Indian economy. In order to make agricultural activities profitable changes were required in Indian agrarian system and then reforms were aimed at the same.
5. Land reforms were necessary to give meaning to the promises made by nationalist leaders to peasants during the course of freedom struggle.
6. Empowerment of peasantry was an important slogan of the national movement and this could not be done without changing the agrarian structure.

Aims and Objectives of Land Reforms

1. To carry out equitable distribution of land by imposing land ceiling. Under this a maximum limit was fixed on the amount of agricultural land a person could have. Land beyond this limit was to be taken over by the state so that it could be redistributed among landless peasants and farmers.
2. Consolidation of land holdings under which land pieces held by peasants in different parts were transferred at one place so that agriculture could be carried out profitably.
3. Abolition of intermediaries meant village headman and others responsible for exploiting the peasants by collecting cess et cetera were removed.
4. Fixation of tenures and other conditions for safeguarding rights of tenant cultivators.
5. Promotion of cooperative farming such that group of peasants could work together and ensure maximum possible production.

Approaches to Land Reform

Gandhian Approach

1. Gandhian ideology of peaceful voluntary action. Bhoodan , 1951 and Gramdan 1957 by Acharya Vinoba Bhave were based on concept of Gandhiji’s Sarvodaya. Under it big landowners were persuaded to surrender their excess land holdings for common good. There was no pressure applied on landlords and it relied on moral persuasion.
2. This approach could not find much Success because the social pressure and moral persuasion were not effective enough to persuade the landlords to give up their land holdings. Most of the land received through voluntary action of landlords was uncultivable. To gain social prestige landlords surrendered most infertile of their land holdings for redistribution. Out of the 42.6 lakh acres of land received 3.7 lakh acres was completely uncultivable and only 11.9 lakh acres of land could be redistributed and the remaining land found no takers because of its really poor quality.

Marxist Approach

It was advocated by revolutionary peasant leaders as they had little faith in effectiveness of peaceful methods. Failure of Bhoodan and Gramdan movement had further convinced them that voluntary action and peaceful methods will not produce any results. This approach manifested in form of Naxalbari movement and Maoist movements. In this tenant cultivators were able to consider themselves as owners of land. They were not required to share their produce with landlords. This led to violent clashes and conflicts in various parts of India.

Nationalist Approach

It was used by the government of India to implement land reforms. Zamindari system was abolished. Tenancy rights were upheld. It was necessary so that ownership rights could be transferred to actual cultivators and the evils of zamindari system could be wiped out. Government took steps like- abolition of intermediaries, land ceiling and land reforms. Constitution was amended to pave way for implementation of land reforms in 1951. State governments were persuaded to enact laws in consonance with central laws so that land reforms could be implemented throughout India. But this was also partially successful. In states like Bengal and Kerala government took strong actions land reforms were highly successful but in states like Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh they could not find much success. In other states reforms for moderately successful.

Reasons for failure

1. Land reform laws enacted by various state governments deferred quite significantly. In states like Andhra Pradesh land ceiling limit was set so high that most land owners were not affected.
2. Land reforms had serious loopholes. The concept of land ceiling was applied only to land. Land under tariff was not taken into account.
3. Big landlords resorted to Benami transactions and transferred their land in names of relatives, friends and even servants to Escape land ceilings.
4. Big landlords enjoyed immense political clout. They had influence in lawmaking process and many landlords were part of the legislature itself.
5. Landlords enjoyed immense influence over bureaucratic machinery as well as obstructed effective implementation
6. Land has been a subject of state list so tied the hands of central government in purview of land reforms. State government did not exhibit necessary political activism and this lack of political commitment contributed to failure of land reforms.

Impact of Failure of Land Reforms

1. Failure of land reforms ensured that most of the peasants remain marginal and landless farmers.
2. Land ownership was concentrated in few hands. The traditional class differences prevailing in rural India could not be wiped out.
3. Failure of land reforms intensified social crisis after Independence. Once the peasants failed to see the fulfilment of their aspirations through normal peaceful means many of them developed faith in violent revolutionary methods leading to violent conflicts.
4. Failure of land reforms affected advancement of Indian agriculture as it remain backward and stagnant for a long period.
5. Failure of land reforms was the main reason behind food shortage faced by India for a long period even after Independence.

Politics of Planning and Rural Reconstruction

Planning and development

After independence development in India should mean both economic growth and social & economic justice. This required the government to play an active role.

Initially modernisation like the west was associated with development envisioning it as growth, material progression and scientific rationality.

2 Models available after independence were-

• Liberal capitalist model like Europe and USA
• Socialist model like USSR

It was understood that task of poverty alleviation and social and economic redistribution was primarily the responsibility of government.  It was agreed that development cannot be left to private actors, hence, there was a need for the govt to develop a design or plan for development. This transformed into the idea of planning as the process of rebuilding economy. Bombay Plan 1944 wanted the state to take major initiatives in industrial and other economic investment. This strengthened the resolve to adopt planned development leading to birth of Planning Commission In 1950 with the PM as it’s chairperson.

Five Year Plans

• Kerala Model of Planning
• focus on education, health, land reform, effective food distribution, poverty alleviation
• btw 1987- 1991 launched New Democratic Initiative which involved campaigns for development including total literacy to involve people directly in development through voluntary citizen organisations
• plans at panchayat, block and district level
• India opted for FYPs where the govt prepared a plan for all its income and expenditure for next 5 years, accordingly the budget was divided between centre and states as plan and non plan budget.
• planned budget allowed the govt to focus on the larger picture and make long term intervention in the economy.
• 1st FYP(1951-56)
• aim to get country out of poverty and raise level of national income
• main focus agrarian sector
• investment in dams and irrigation - Bhakra Nangal Dam
• Land reforms
• 2nd FYP
• focus on heavy industries chief architect PC Mahalanobis
• At Avadi Session 1955 Congress adopted Socialist Pattern of society as it’s goal
• Substantial import tariff to protect domestic industries
• As savings and investment Grew industries like electricity, railways, steel, machineries and communication developed under public sector
• Problems
• since India was technologically backward it had to spend large amount of money on importing heavy machinery and other technology from global market
• with more focus on industries agriculture lagged behind leading to danger of food shortage
• 3rd FYP
• similar to second plan critics point out an urban bias in plan
• 4th plan was  due to start in 1966 but by this time the novelty of planning had declined and India was facing an acute economic crisis. Thus govt decided to take plan holiday.

Issues

• Agriculture V/S Industry
• shift in focus from agriculture to industry in 2nd FYP led to suffering in rural and agriculture sector
• Gandhian Economist JC Kumarappa emphasised on rural industrialisation and Chaudhary Charan Singh also highlighted need for keeping agriculture at centre of planning. As planning was leading to creation of prosperity in urban and industrial section at the expense of farmers and rural population.
• other argued without drastic increase in industrial production the vicious cycle of poverty could not be broken . Provisions for land reforms and distribution of resources among poor provided for importance of agriculture. Programmes also existed for community development and large scale irrigation projects.
• the failure was not absence of policies but of their non implementation because of land owning classes
• Public Sector V/S Private Sector
• there was no clear path of public and private sector and involved participation of both creating a Mixed Economy
• Government controlled key industries like industrial infrastructure, regulated trade and intervention in agriculture as and when required
• critics argue that private sector was not given enough space to grow and public sector growth created emergence of powerful vested interests with existence of license system and permits for investment
• with fall in imports and no subsequent rise in exports the private sector was left with no competition to improve their products
• there was less spending on education and health.
• poverty did not decline substantially during this period , even when the proportion of poor reduced their number increased.

Impact

1. land reforms were not successful, political power remained in hands of large landowners and big industrialists continued to thrive while poverty did not reduce much
2. Foundations for India’s future economic development were laid. Large development projects like mega dams- Bhakra Nangal, Hirakud for irrigation & power generation; heavy industries in public sector - steel plants, oil refineries, manufacturing units, defence production etc were started. Infrastructure for transport and communications was improved substantially
3. Land reforms- Abolition of zamindari released land from clutches of a class which had little interest in agriculture, it also reduced capacity of landlords to dominate politics. 
4. Consolidation of land holdings- bringing small pieces of land together in one place so that farm size could become viable for agriculture were fairly successful. However, land ceiling and abolition of tenancy were not largely successful. Since the dominance of large landowners in politics implementation of land reforms became troublesome.
5. Food Crises in 1960s - between 1965- 67 severe droughts occurred in many parts of the country along with the 2 wars and foreign exchange crises leading to an overall economic crises. There was severe food shortage and famine like conditions in many parts of the country. The prices of food grains increased further intensifying deprivation and distress. The government had to import wheat and accept foreign aid from USA under PL480. Now the priority of planners shifted to attaining self sufficiency in food grains.
6. Green Revolution- The import of grains from USA made India susceptible to international pressure- USA was pushing India to change its economic policies threatening to withdraw food aid. Hence government adopted a new strategy of Green revolution to ensure food sufficiency. It was decided to support farmers in areas with good irrigation and other agriculture facilities with HYV seeds, pesticides and fertilisers and better irrigation and highly subsidised prices. The government also guaranteed purchase of farm produce at a given price. However, even though India attained self sufficiency in food grain production, transforming itself from a food deficit to a food surplus country, a new form of inequality emerged between large and small farmers, between green revolution states and states where it was not implemented.  Some areas like Punjab, Haryana, UP became agriculturally prosperous while others remained backwards.
7. White Revolution Operation flood in 1970s for milk production. It organised cooperatives of milk producers into a nationwide milk grid, with purpose of increasing milk production, bringing producer and consumer closer by eliminating the middleman and assuring the producers a regular income throughout the year.
8. 1967 onwards with coming of Indira Gandhi at the helm of affairs the state strengthened its role in controlling and directing the economy. Many new restrictions were imposed on private industries. 14 private banks were nationalised in 1969. Many pro poor programmes were announced. The socialist tilt in economic policies of government became more visible.

Over the next 2 decades the novelty of planned development significantly reduced.

Green Revolution

Green Revolution is used for revolutionary increase in food grain production in India during the 1970s and 80s as a result of initiatives taken by the government. American Mexican scientist Norman Borlaug is considered as father of green Revolution. He took the first step towards introduction of high yielding variety seeds in 1968 and gradually other initiatives followed.

Need for green revolution

1. Important meet the food needs of Indian population. At the time of Independence huge gap between the requirement and availability of foodgrains through domestic production. Independent India was not in a position to meet the food needs of its citizens. India was dependent on import of food grains and foreign assistance. From 1947 to 1959 United States provided food assistance of more than $2 billion under American food for peace program.
2. In 1954 the public law or PL 480 was enacted to provide food aid to friendly nations. But such an external food assistance affected the residents and sovereignty of India. Hence an urgent need to initiate steps to increase foodgrain production was felt and government took the necessary steps.
3. India was a predominantly agricultural economy at the time of Independence. Colonial rule had ruined Indian agricultural productivity. Gradually government took steps for development of agrarian infrastructure in form of irrigation facilities and establishment of markets. The first five-year plan was centred around development of agriculture. Land reforms also played an important role in preparing the ground for green Revolution.
4. The defeat of India in war against China exposed that even soldiers did not have sufficient food supplies. There was hence, an urgent need to infuse a new lease of life in Indian agriculture. In August 1965 Prime Minister Lal Bahadur Shastri gave the slogan of Jai Jawan Jai Kisan highlighting importance of farmers and of agriculture equivalent to that of soldiers protecting Indian border.
5. The need of rapid economic advancement was  also behind the steps taken by the government. For enhancing production India adopted a socialist political economic system. Government was responsible for uplifting the socio-economic standard of the people. These steps taken to ensure the economic advancement of Indian farmers resulted in green Revolution.

Initiatives under green revolution

• Introduction of high yielding variety seeds
• Use of chemical fertilisers and pesticides
• Mechanised cultivation
• Land reforms
• Encouragement of double cropping and crop rotation
• Establishment of markets for agricultural products
• Step towards ensuring credit availability to farmers
• Development of irrigation facilities through multipurpose canals and tubewells et cetera

Impact

Positive impact

1. It resulted in remarkable increase in food grain production. The production increased from 20 million tonnes in 1968 to 50 million tonnes in 1982 and 60 million tonnes by 1993. Rice production increased from 40 mil tonnes in 1968 to 60 million tonnes in 1982 and 80million  tonnes in 1993. Total foodgrain production increased from 97 million tonnes in 1950- 51 to 1 24 million tonnes in 1970-71 and 241 million tonnes in 2010 to 11.
2. Green revolution transformed India from a food deficient to a food surplus nation. Instead of importing foodgrains India started exporting to other countries. This development enhance the status of India in eyes of international community.
3. It allowed India to behave as a sovereign nation as there was no more a compulsion or dependence on external assistance to feed its citizens.
4. Increase in agricultural productivity resulted in prosperity of farmers. Demand for farm instruments, machinery, pesticides and fertilisers et cetera gave rise to industrial activities. Industries got a boost due to increase in purchasing power of farmers.
5. Industrial revolution contributed to development of irrigation facilities with  introduction of sprinklers et cetera.
6. Green Revolution increased rural employment especially opportunities for people from poorer states like Bihar Orissa et cetera who found jobs in Green Revolution areas.
7. Green revolution also contributed to the development of marketing facilities. Once the production increased government as well as private entities took steps for development of markets.
8. Economic interaction between rural and urban areas increased as a result of green Revolution.

Negative Impact

1. It resulted in a serious regional disparity. Even though entire India was targeted by the government green revolution was largely limited to western Uttar Pradesh, Haryana and Punjab, eastern India remained largely isolated. As a result some parts in India could see rapid progress while others remain largely backwards.
2. Green revolution resulted in class disparities as more big farmers acquired benefits than small farmers.
3. Green Revolution benefited richer sections of population more as remarkable production increase was of wheat and rice foodgrains consumed by richer sections. Cereals consumed by poorer sections like barley did not witnessed much production and their prices remain high.
4. Production of pulses did not see any significant increase and changed diet patterns. Percentage of carbohydrate and protein in diet reduced and lead to malnutrition.
5. Soil was affected because of increased use of pesticides and fertilisers. Intensive irrigation resulted in soil leaching and decreased its fertility. Monotonous cropping of wheat and rice lead to depletion of certain nutrients from soil. Multiple cropping imposed a bit burden on soil as there was hardly any time left for its rejuvenation.
6. Intensive irrigation and groundwater table in many parts led to water crisis.
7. Intensive use of fertilisers and pesticides lead to ecological degradation and health hazards. Lakes and other water reservoirs were contaminated including groundwater. These chemicals entered food chains and caused serious health hazards. In Punjab cancer cases increased enormously, pesticides kill birds and various plants leading to ecological degradation.
8. The revolution led to reduction in forest cover as trees were cut on large scale to expand agricultural land.
9. It led to migration of people from areas with no Green Revolution initiatives to areas with high green revolution influx towards Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Haryana.
10. Rural indebtedness also increase as a result of green Revolution. Farmers had to take loans from local moneylenders to purchase seeds, implements, pesticides et cetera. Since the rate of interests were to hire many farmers were trapped in debt cycles.
11. Challenges like air and noise pollution were also created by green Revolution. Use of machines intensified destruction.

Reasons for Failure in eastern India

1. Success of green Revolution depended on availability of specific  geoclimatic, infrastructural factors. It requires suitable climate for high Yielding variety of rice and wheat as they needed regular irrigation not available in southern India.
2. Eastern India witnessed intense monsoonal rainfall for a bigger part of the year. This was followed by a period of drought and in such an environment cultivation of high yielding variety seeds was not possible.
3. By 1960s to 1970s land reforms were far more successful in Haryana, Punjab and western Uttar Pradesh done in eastern India except in Bengal where they started effectively after 1977.
4. The acidic soil of eastern India was comparatively less suitable to grow high yielding variety seeds.
5. Underdeveloped market systems and no availability of resources in eastern India provided no incentives for farmers change their production patterns. Road and other communication networks are also underdeveloped in eastern India where as they were highly developed in Punjab, Haryana and western Uttar Pradesh.

Second Green Revolution

The limitations of first Green Revolution forced the government to look for second Green Revolution so that process of agricultural advancement could be carried to new heights. By the beginning of 21st century of stagnation had arrived in agricultural sector and to counter this necessary steps had to be taken.

1. Second green revolution targeted parts of India which could not benefit from the first green revolution. It focused on Jharkhand, Orissa, West Bengal, Assam, Bihar et cetera.
2. It carefully took into account the successes and failures of first green revolution. It emphasised on sustainable and eco-friendly agricultural practices so that the negative impact on human health and environment could be avoided.
3. Number of crops focused on now increased as region specific crops were promoted coarse grains and pulses were specially focused upon.
4. Agroforestry was promoted in second green revolution to diversify income sources. It relied on biotechnology to maximum possible extent to avoid chemical pesticides and fertilisers.

Framework for 11th five year plan

The vision for second Green Revolution was put forward in 11th five-year plan document. A number of specific steps suggested In this document to increase agricultural production so that per capita income of farmers could be increased. They were-

• Doubling rate of growth of irrigated area
• Improving water management, rainwater harvesting and irrigation facilities et cetera
• Reclaim degraded land and focusing on soil quality
• Bridge the knowledge gap through effective propagation of better farming techniques among peasants
• Diversify agricultural cropping patterns by focusing on high-value products like fruits, vegetables, flowers et cetera
• Providing easy credit facilities to farmers at affordable rates of interest
• Improving incentive structure and functioning of markets
• Re-focusing on land reforms
• Emphasis on cultivation of pulses so that nutritional requirements of citizens could be met
• Focus on specific seats suitable for specific areas to maximise production
• Greater attention to area specific problems like drought prone areas rain fed areas et cetera

Implementation

Under second Green Revolution specific budget has been allocated by the government so that no part of India could remain unaffected. An amount of 4000 crores was allocated for it and the amount was to be increased every year. For new seeds a Genetic engineering appraisal committee was set up to approve save genetically modified crops.

Ecology and environment Policy in Post Colonial India

Kathleen Gough- the vision of tribals and local representatives implied bottom up nature of movement

Ranajit Guha Political movement for exercising subaltern rights

Aruna Roy Holistic social movement which not only conserve natural resources but also spread awareness on patriarchy, political corruption, alcoholism

Geraldine Forbes Have undertones of women empowerment at Centre emphasising need a female participation in decision making of local resources as they are the direct stakeholders

Shiv Vishwanathan Regular protest against Forest rights act 2006 by farmers, Vedanta Sterlite project and means to fight for Communist principles against capitalist encroachment

A large number of environmental movements have emerged in India especially after 1970s. These movements have grown out of a series of independent responses to local issues in different places at different times.

Chipko

Chipko movement was a non-violent movement based on Gandhian methods. It was essentially associated with livelihood of the people living in hilly areas of present Uttarakhand state in Garhwal Himalayas. It was one of the earliest movements against the ill effects of environmental degradation and massive deforestation been carried out in name of development. The success of Chipko movement inspired environmental activists not only in India but in other parts of the world as well.

Reasons

1. It was a response in reaction to massive deforestation carried out in himalayan region during the 1960s.
2. After the defeat of Indian forces by China in 1962 the government of India realise that lack of border infrastructure was a big factor behind the failure of Indian troops. This realisation convinced the government that railway lines and road networks should be expanded in border areas and to connect borders with interior regions so that troops ammunition and other supplies could be mobilised rapidly during wars and battles.
3. For this timber was appropriated from the forest in huge quantity for railway lines. Mining and other activities were being carried out in hilly areas also resulting in deforestation.
4. The trees were being cut under contract system in which forest areas were auctioned for falling of trees. Most of the big contractors were from the plains and had no understanding of importance of Forest for the people of hilly areas. Also they brought their labourers from plains and only menial low paid jobs were offered to locals.
5. Evils of contract system led to massive unemployment in hilly areas and at the same time affected the lifestyle of people. As per the law only grown up trees were to be cut but system of corruption was so prevalent that contractors cut small trees to appropriate maximum profits.
6. This massive deforestation affected the pattern of rainfall and availability of water. Problems like landslides, soil erosion increased enormously. The availability of fuel wood and minor forest produce was also significantly impacted. While animals started entering villages as they lost their habitat due to deforestation. Since women were the ones who collected fuel wood, fetched water et cetera they were the ones most affected by the deforestation and hence were at the forefront of the movement.
7. When the consequences of deforestation started affecting the very sustenance of life of local people Chipko movement was started under leadership of Chandi Prasad Bhatt, Gora Devi, Sunderlal Bahuguna et cetera.
8. Under this when the contactors meant to cut the trees the villagers came out and hugged the trees. Women children and old people were all involved. They started in 1973 and continued for many years.

Significance

1. The chipko movement was the first of its kind not only in India but also in the world. This non-violent struggle exhibited the resolve of locals against adverse impact of deforestation on their social economic life.
2. This movement forced the government to take notice of the problems being faced by the people of hills due to commercial logging operations. Government had to change the contract system so that social economic and other rights of locals could be safeguarded.
3. Chipko movement resulted in a social economic revolution because the locals wanted control over their forest resources as a result of its success. The control of bureaucracy on forest and its resources was no longer absolute.
4. Environmental degration triggered by large-scale deforestation could be reversed due to Chipko movement. This movement inspired several other such struggles in different parts of India for example Appkikko movement in Karnataka.

Features

• Began in villages of Uttarakhand when forest dept refused permission to villagers to fell ash tree for making agricultural tools. However, it allowed the same patch of land to a sports manufacturer for commercial use. This enraged the villagers leading to Chipko movt one of the most significant high defining environmental movement in the world.
• the struggle soon spread to other areas in Uttarakhand.
• Larger issues of economic and ecological exploitation of the region were raised. Villagers demanded that no forest exploiting contracts should be given to outsiders and local communities should have effective control over natural resources like land, water, & forests.
• took issues of landless forest workers and asked for minimum wages
• They wanted govt to provide low cost materials to small industries and ensure development of region without disturbing the ecological balance.
• Women’s active participation was a novel feature. They agitated against habit of alcoholism and broadened the agenda of the movt to cover other social issues.
• It was finally successful when the govt issued a ban on felling of trees in the Himalayan region for 15 years, until the green cover was fully restored

Major reasons of the emergence of environmental movements in India

1. control over natural resources,
2. misguided developmental policies of the government,
3. socio economic reasons,
4. environmental degradation/ destruction
5. spread of environmental awareness and media.

The environmental movements have emerged from the Himalayan regions of Uttar Pradesh to the tropical forests of Kerala and from Gujarat to Tripura.

Major movement are:

• The Chipko Movement
• Narmada Bachao Andolan
• Appiko Movement
• Silent Valley Movement
• Tehri Dam Movement

Nature of Environmental movement:

• peaceful protest, mass based, against environmental degradation, like by hugging trees in Chipko movement or Gandhian approach of Satyagraha.
• Matter for livelihood and survival mattered the most rather than luxury (unlike western country).
• Sometimes leaders from outside (like Medha Patekar in Narmada Bachao Andolan)
• Use of constitutional means (like petition to court: by Narmada Bachao Adolan, Silent Valley).
• involvement of local voluntary organizations or NGOs
• For example: The Kerala Sastra Sahitya Parishad (KSSP), an NGO of Kerala for growing environmental awareness through popularizing science and appropriate technology.
• expression of the socio-ecological effects of narrowly conceived development based on short-term criteria of exploitation. They brought the concern of sustainable development to the fore.
• Environment movements saw active women participation. Environment movements like the Chipko gave to the understanding that environment issues are often women’s issues because they suffer most from its deterioration.
• These movements though localized and were result of some immediate grievances but had wide national appeal.
• could not channelised in a nationwide movement. Each movement started out, sometimes achieved its aim and dissipated.
• Government and judiciary was also sympathetic towards the environmental movement which led to the passing of several legislations and judicial interventions in favour of environment protection through Public Interest Litigation.

As a consequence of these movements, major legislation like Environment Protection Act (1986), Wild Life Protection Act (1972), Forest Conservation Act (1980) and water and air pollution acts were passed. In 1974 Central Pollution Control Board and their state counterparts were constituted. India became signatory of Cartagena protocol, Nagoya protocol, Montreal protocol and Kigali protocol among many others. But still a long way to go as discussion on trade off between environmental protection and development is still continuing.

What do you understand by Ecological imperialism? How it caused the destruction of ecology and encroachment upon traditional rights of the people leading to the popular resistance during the British period?

• Ecological imperialism theory was advanced first by Alfred Crosby with respect to the ecological destruction of colonised area by European settlers.
• Madhav Gadgil and Ramchandra Guha applied the same idea to India in their famous book- “This Fissured Land: An Ecological History of India”.
• Prior to British arrival, forest land was a common property resource.
• Before Indian Forest Department in 1864, there was little state intervention in the management of forest areas, which were left in the control of local communities.
• The takeover of large areas of forest by the colonial state thus constituted an important watershed in many ways:
• Political watershed:
• represented an enormous expansion of the powers of the state
• corresponding diminution of the rights of village communities.
• Social watershed:
• By curbing local access it radically altered traditional patterns of resource use.
• Ecological watershed:
• emergence of timber as an important commodity was to fundamentally alter forest ecology.
• Destruction of ecology:
• colonial state controlled the forest and destroyed it also.
• British intervened and radically altered existing food producing systems and their ecological basis.
• British empowered zamindar to tax and control indigenous communities and encouraged local communities to clear forest for cultivation.
• The imperatives of colonial forestry were largely commercial.
• There was large scale commercial logging and deforestation because of colonial demands.
• Use of timber in railways led to the destruction of ecology.
• Teak trees were felled to build ships.
• Diversity of Aravali ridge disturbed in Delhi due to several factors like introduction invasive trees like vilayati kikar trees native to Mexico.
• Replaced forest trees of Uttarakhand from borad-leaf oak to pine trees (it is one of the major reasons of forest fire).
• Encroachment on customary rights: like use of forest produce by local tribes, shifting cultivation but used trees for themselves.
• Indian Forest Act, 1878 and 1927:
• regulate movement and transit of forest produce and restricted several traditional rights in the Reserve Forest for e.g. right over land, right of pasture, right to forest produce etc.
• Popular resistance
• intensification of social conflict between the state and its subjects.
• Almost everywhere, the takeover of the forest was bitterly resisted by local populations for whom it represented an unacceptable infringement of their traditional rights of access and use.
• Hunter gatherers, shifting cultivators, peasants, pastoral nomads, artisans - for all these social groups free access to forest produce was vital for economic survival, and they protested in various ways at the imposition of state control.
• new restrictions on hunting for local populations (while allowing freer hunting for sport by the British) were another contributory factor in fueling social conflict.
• Popular resistance to state forestry was remarkably widespread and sustained.
• In 1913, a government committee in the Madras Presidency was struck by the hostility towards the forest department, which was the most criticised government agency.
• forms of protest that minimized the element of confrontation with authority, such as covert breaches of the forest law, as well as organized rebellions that challenged the right of the state to own and manage forest areas

Hence ecological imperialism led to the popular resistance to state environmental policies in the colonial period which also inspired post-independence environmental movement in India.

Party based movt

• Popular movt May take form of political or social movt. The nationalist movt was a political movt, however, movements against particular social and economic issues were also present - anti caste movt, kisan sabhas, trade unions etc.
• Trade union movt had a strong presence in post independence India esp in cities with large no. Of industrial workers eg. Mumbai, Kolkata, Kanpur.
• all political parties had est their own trade unions to mobilise this section of workers
• peasants in Telangana organised massive agitations under leadership of the communists and demanded redistribution of land to the cultivators. Peasants in Andhra, Bihar, Bengal, under Marxists Leninist continued agitations as Naxalite. They mainly focused on issues of economic injustice and inequality.
• they did not participate in the elections formally but had major influence in political parties ensuring a better representation of their demands

Non Party based movt

• 1970s- 80s many sections were disillusioned by party politics and the failure of Janata govt leading to instability further accentuated the dissatisfaction.
• failure of planned development to ensure economic growth of the lower sections in population led to heightened social inequalities like caste and gender. The difference between rural- urban, rich- poor was all the more visible.
• many politically active groups lost faith in democratic institutions and electoral politics. They chose to step outside party politics and engage in mass mobilisation for registering their protests.
• students and young political activist were at forefront of such mobilisation of marginalised sections - Dalits and tribals.
• many launched service organisations and constructive programmes among rural poor due to the voluntary nature of their functioning they came to known as Voluntary organisations
• they did not contest elections at local or regional level. They did not support any political parties. Since they believed in democratic functions, but didn’t want to contest elections or be members of political parties they emerged as non party movt. They hoped direct and active participation by local groups of citizens would be more effective in resolving local issues than political parties. It was hoped that direct participation by people will reform the nature of democratic govt.

Caste Based Movements

Factors that led to the growth of Dalit consciousness

• The introduction of new system of education, new political and economic forces which rested on principles of individual liberty, equity, and democratic spirit percolated among Indian masses including Dalits.
• Dalit movement was fundamentally the movement to achieve mobility on part of the groups which has lagged behind. They were a reaction against the social, cultural and economic preponderance and exclusiveness of other class over them.
• They also got a fillip through British policy of divide and rule in which census operation played a sufficient role. British policy of classifying caste on the basis of social precedence provided an opportunity for making claims for social pre-eminence through caste mobilisation.
• Influence of Western philosophers who gave philosophies like “all men are created equal” also gave impetus to the growth of Dalit consciousness.
• Improved communication network made wider links and combination possible; new system of education provided opportunity for socio-economic promotion, new administrative system rule of law undermined certain privileges enjoyed by few and certain economic forces like industrialization threw open equal opportunities for all dismantling social barriers.
• The commercialization of agricultural production and agrarian relations, emergence of contractual relations, new employment opportunities outside the village in factories, mandis, etc
• Social reform movements, such as those of Jyotiba Phule in Maharashtra and Sri Narayana Guru in Kerala, also began to question the caste system and caste inequality
• Constitution provisions in favor of Dalits empowered them and this led to more awareness among them about their right.

Dalit movements in Post-independence India

• Kanshi Ram’s Movement:
• Kanshi Ram and his colleagues established the scheduled caste, scheduled tribe, other backward classes and minorities Employees Welfare Association in 1971.
• Later, in 1981, Ram formed another social organisation known as Dalit Shoshit Samaj Sangharsh Samiti (DS4). He started his attempt of consolidating the Dalit vote and in 1984 he founded the Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP) which found success in Uttar Pradesh later under Mayawati.

Dalit Panthers

• Early 1970s 1st generation of graduates from Dalit sections of society started asserting their rights on various platforms. In post independence India Dalits were fighting against caste based inequalities and material injustices perpetrated on them despite constitutionally guaranteed equality and justice.
• inspired by the Black Panther Party, a socialist movement that sought to combat racial discrimination against African-American during civil right movement in the United States, which occurred in the mid-20th century.
• they were settled on peripheral areas of villages
• were denied access to public wells
• their women were dishonoured and abused
• majority were still employed in low paying menial jobs based on caste- manual scavengers etc
• political parties supported by Dalits were not successful in electoral politics and remained marginal in influence
• Dalit panthers emerged as a militant org of Dalit youth in Maharashtra in 1972. 
• Since discrimination and violence gains Dalits continued Dalit panthers resorted to mass action for assertion of Dalit rights.
• Activities
• fight atrocities against Dalits in various parts of the state through sustained agitations and mobilisation leading the govt to pass a comprehensive law for protection of their rights in 1989
• their aim was to destroy the caste system and build an org of all oppressed sections like landless poor peasants and urban industrial workers along with Dalits
• provided a platform to educated Dalit youth to use their creative energies in protest activity
• emergence of Dalit writers who protested against oppression and atrocities in their writings, autobiographies were able to bring forth their circumstances in the larger literary circles. This made literature more broad based and representative of different social sections and initiated contestations in cultural realm
• However, in the post emergency period Dalit Panthers got involved in electoral compromises and underwent many splits which led to its decline

Bharatiya Kisan Union

• Agrarian struggle in the 1980 saw better off farmers protesting against state policies when they were earlier able to benefit from the same
• January 1988, around 20,000 farmers gathered in Meerut, UP protesting against govt decision to increase electricity rates. They protested for 3 weeks until their demands were fulfilled. It was a great show of rural power- power of farmer cultivators. These farmers were members of Bharatiya kisan union(BKU)  org of farmers from western UP and Haryana
• Cash crop( sugar, wheat) market faced a crisis in 1980s due to beginning of liberalisation of Indian economy. BKU demanded higher govt floor prices for sugarcane and wheat, abolition of restrictions on inter state movt of farm produce, guaranteed supply of electricity at reasonable rates, waiving of repayment of loans to farmers and govt pension for farmers
• other farmers org like Shetkari sangathan Maharashtra raised similar demands and it even declared farmers movt as war of Bharat( rural India) against forces of India (urban industrial sector). Rayata sangha Karnataka
• 2020-21 Protest against 3 Farm Laws for more than a year finally government agreed to repeal the 3 laws.
• Characteristics
• Measures used for asserting its demands - rallies, demonstrations, sit ins, jail bharo aandolan etc.
• support of large no. Of farmers from the North Indian belt organised massive rallies
• used caste linkages of farmers i.e. traditional caste panchayats etc to bring them together over economic issues
• even with no proper organisational structure BKU was able to sustain itself through clan based networks which were used to mobilise funds, resources and mass support
• it operated as a pressure group and strategically distanced itself from political parties
• Farmers movt became one of the most successful social movt in the 1980s as a result of political bargaining powers of its members. It was active in some of the most prosperous states of the country.

Recent Dalit Movements like the Dalit Asmita Yatra from Ahmedabad to Una, for justice and not revenge.

Due to the efforts made by the social reformers of before mentioned Dalit movements. Various provisions were laid down in the constitution of India and various other legislation for the upliftment of Dalits so they can live with dignity and security of their persons. However, its a shame on us as a society that we are not able to still eradicate untouchability in its true form.

Anti Arrack Movt

• Emerged in the 1980s in rural areas of southern Andhra - a spontaneous mobilisation of women demanding a ban on sale of alcohol in their neighbourhood. Rural women in Andhra fought battle against alcoholism, against mafias and against the govt
• the movt was result of the adult literacy campaign in the 1990s where they complained about increased consumption of local alcohol arrack by the men in families ruining their physical and mental health
• it affected the rural economy along with which there was a rise in indebtedness
• women were the worst sufferers of these ill effects of alcohol as it led to collapse of family economy and violence against women by male family members
• they came together to protest and force for closure of wine shops and slowly started spreading across Andhra
• a political and criminal nexus emerged by stakeholders involved in alcohol business who tried all possible means to suppress the voice of these women. State earned huge revenue from sale of alcohol and was not willing to impose a ban
• but the women held strong and resisted the forces. Issues like domestic violence and socio economic aspects gender based violence were openly discussed
• women’s groups who were till now active in urban sphere of life also started shifting attention to the atrocities faced by women in rural areas . They ran campaigns against dowry system and demanded personal and property laws based on norms of gender equality
• An overall social awareness on women’s issues emerged along with demand for legal safeguards And reservations

Narmada Bachao aandolan

• Issue of displacement caused by huge developmental projects.
• project envisioned 30 big dams, 135 medium dams and around 3000 small dams on river Narmada and it’s tributaries across MP, Gujarat, and Maharashtra.  2 imp projects were Sardar Sarovar project Gujarat and  narmada sagar project MP
• the movt opposed construction of these dams and questioned the nature of ongoing developmental projects in the nation
• Sardar Sarovar project which was expected to benefit gujarat in terms of water availability was going to submerge around 245 villages and required relocation of around 2.5 lakh people from these villages
• issues of relocation and rehabilitation of project affected people were raised by local groups and by 1988-89 crystallised under Narmada Bachao aandolan - a loose collective of voluntary organisation
• Issues highlighted were
• nature of development project & efficacy of the model of development followed by country in long run
• cost benefit analysis was demanded to calculate the larger social costs involved in such projects
• social costs were - project affected people, loss of their livelihood and culture and depletion of ecological resources
• demand for proper and just rehabilitation of the project affected people
• questioned the nature of decision making process in granting approvals for such projects
• insisted that local communities must have a say in such decisions and have effective control over land, water, and resources
• making the govt and judiciary recognise the right to rehabilitation which culminated in National Policy on Rehabilitation 2003
• critics argued against demand for obstructing the development projects, denying access to water & economic development. SC upheld govt decision to go ahead with the project while instructing it to ensure proper rehabilitation
• the movt continued for more than 20 years in which it used every available democratic strategy to put forward its demands. These included appeals to judiciary, mobilisation of support at international level, public rallies and revival of satyagraha form of struggle . However, the movt could not garner much support among the mainstream political parties and their agenda.

Right to Information Movement

• emerged in 1990s when a mass based org Mazdoor kisan shakti sangathan( MKSS) in Rajasthan demanded records of famine relief works and accounts of labourers. It was 1st raised in Bhim tehsil.
• villagers started asserting their right to information by asking for copies of bills and vouchers and names of persons on the muster roll who have been paid wages on construction of schools, dispensaries, small dams and community centres
• on paper such developmental projects were all completed but in common knowledge of villagers there was gross misappropriation of funds
• 1994 & 1996 MKSS organised jan sunwai Or public hearings where administration was asked to provide and explanation to the public
• it led to anamendment in Rajasthan panchayati raj act which now permitted the public to procure certified copies of documents held by panchayats. The panchayats were also required to publish on board and in newspapers the budget, accounts, expenditure, policies and beneficiaries
• Consumer education and research centre, Press council and Shourie committee proposed a draft RTI law
• 1996 MKSS founded National Council for People’s Right to Information in Delhi to raise RTI as a national issue
• 2002 a weak Freedom of information act was legislated but never came to force
• finally the RTI Act was passed in 2005

Impact

1. They helped rectify some of the problems in functioning of political parties and can be seen as integral part of our democratic functioning.
2. They represented new social groups whose economic and social grievances were not addressed in the realm of electoral politics. They ensured effective representation of diverse groups and their demands. This reduced the possibility of deep social conflict and disaffection of these groups from democracy.
3. They provided new forms of active participation in Indian democracy.

Limitations

1. continued rallies, strikes, protests, sit ins etc disrupted the functioning of govt, delayed decision making and destabilised routines of democracy.
2. The impact of such movt is limited to target and affected groups.
3. Focus on single issue and represent interest of only one section in society. This is against the unity in diversity aspect of Indian democracy.
4. Their demands do not resonate with many political parties creating a wider gulf over the years between 2.

However, movements are not only about collective assertions, they involve a gradual process of coming together of people with similar problems, similar demands and similar expectations. But then they are also about making people aware of their rights and expectations that they can have in a democratic country. Social movt in India have been an educational experience which have contributed to expansion of democracy.

Progress of Science

• Dams as temples of modern India.
• First IIT at Kharagpur, Then at Mumbai Chennai Kanpur and Delhi. Institute of technology act 1961 declaring Indian Institute of technology is as institutes of national importance.
• Planning commission was established in 1950.
• National development Council was established in 1952.
• Steel plants were established at Bhilai, Rourkela, Durgapur set with foreign assistance.
• Damodar Valley project was the first multipurpose River Valley project in India.
• 1948 Bhakra Nangal project was inaugurated.
• Space research ISRO was established in 1969 and space commission was created in 1972.

Nehru’s ‘temple of Modern India’ consisted not only of steel and power plants, irrigation dams, but included institutions of higher learning, particularly in the scientific field.”

•  In1954, Nehru, while inaugurating Bhakra Nangal Dam, had described public sector enterprises (PSEs) as ‘temples of modern India’. Nehru declared that India’s economic policy must be based on a humane outlook and must not sacrifice men for money.

They were called called ‘Modern Temples’ because:

1. PSEs, working in areas like dams, steel and power plants were conceived as instruments to bring socio-economic transformation of the country
2. They were important for the nation building, national integration and self reliance. Following steps were taken in this directions:
• Big dams like Bhakhra Nangal, Hirakund were built.
• Iron and Steel Plants were established in Bhilai, Durgapur, Rourkela and Bokaro
• Industry was made priority area in the second five year plan.
• Industry Policy Resolution 1956 defined areas for public and private sector

Important objectives of building these modern temples were to create infrastructure, absorb technology, encourage innovation, generate employment, solving socio-economic problems etc.

To fullfil these objectives, ‘temples of modern India’ were not just limited to building dams and plants but also included creating institutions of higher learning particularly scientific institutions. Without these instiutions, it was not possible to create highly trained manpower, scientists, engineers etc to work in PSEs or to contribute in any other way in building modern India and socio-economic transformation of India. This was also necessary for self reliance.

Following important steps were taken in this direction:

1. Nehru himself assumed the chairmanship of Centre for Science and Industrial Research and pioneered the establishment of network of national laboratories, starting with National Physics Laboratory in 1947 itself.
2. Department of Scientific Research was created under Nehru.
3. Scientific Policy Resolution was passed in 1958.
4. In the field of higher learning, urgent steps were taken to organize the training of technical personnel.
5. In 1952, first of the five Institutions of Technology (IITs) on the pattern of MIT was established at Kharagpur. Other four were established at Delhi, Kanpur, Madras, and Bombay.
6. Due to Nehru’s efforts in higher learnings, the number of science and technical personnel rose from around 180,000 in 1950 to around 730,000 in 1965, by the time he passed away.
7. Along with Homi J Bhabha, Nehru played an important role in laying down Nuclear policy for nuclear energy for peaceful purposes. Atomic Energy Commssion was set up in 1948 with Bhabha as chairman.
8. India also laid foundations in Space research by creating Indian National Committee.
9. Institutions like AIIMS, IIMs, DRDO, ISRO, CSIR, IARC, IISc were established with a futuristic vision and have contributed in meeting the challenges of society by providing world class engineers, doctors, managers, scientists and agriculturists. They have resulted in India’s world class strength in modern technologies.