Ideologies

Ideology

1. coined by Count D Tracy (contemporary to Napolean)
2. 
1. science of idea
3. set of ideas, worldview or wholistic system of thought (grand theory)
4. means for political mobilisation (potrayed  as scientific)
5. Marx- ideology is false consciousness
6. Gramsci: ideology as hegemony
7. Hannah: book- Origin of Totalitarianism tool of totalitarians
8. Karl Mannheim: 
1. sociology of knowledge- every theory has its sociological basis
2. book- ideology and utopia
1. dominant class (ideology) vs oppressed class (utopia)
2. utopia is source of motivation
9. no reality : god is dead (post modernist)
10. oakshott
    
    : neo-conservative
1. in the field of politics, we move in bottomless and borderless sea

Idealism

1. oldest philosophy
2. ancient greece
3. modern times evolution
1. Hegelian (state)
2. Kantian (society)- focus on human dignity
1. influenced oxford school: TH Green, Bradley Bosanquiet
2. categorical imperative to respect human dignity
3. Rousseau (combination of both)
4. human nature: social
5. society: organic
1. reject possessive individualism, atomistic man
6. state: source of virtue
1. Aristotle: state comes into existence for the sake of life and continues for the sake of good life

idealism (ancient)->divine rights of king (medieval)-> natural rights of man (man)->individualism->liberalism

1. liberalism (centre)-> utilitarianism (most dominant)
1. conservatism (right)
2. socialism (left)
3. between centre and left
1. modern liberalism (welfare state)->neo liberalism (globalisation)->social liberals (capacity building)
2. feminists+post modernists reject all

Liberalism (classical)	Liberalism (modern)	Neo-Liberalism
modern capitalist class (middle class) humanism (human at centre)- result of renaissance, reformation, scientific revolution Assumptions Human nature: rational, all born equal, free atomistic (self sufficient)->criticised as abstract individualism by communitarians as imagination Society: sum of  individuals, market  place (aggregate view) man is prior to whole society is market place (people go to fulfill interests) aggregative view criticised by socialist, communitarians, idealists: who consider organic view of society State: necessary (prevent lawlessness) evil (limits liberty), product of social contract Thomas Jefferson : that state governs the best that governs the least mechanistic view (product of contract) nightwatchman stat/police state Social policy: survival of fittest Herbert spencer : concept of survival of fittest drunkard in gutter is where he ought to be (Sumner) economic policy: laissez faire free market, Adam Smith  invisible hand (demand and supply), hence no state intervention Equality first to talk about equality moral equality (dignity) rule of law: equality before law (constitutionalism) similar law for landlords and middle class equality of opportunity- similar opportunity for middle class as aristocratic class earlier by birth only no equality of outcome (socialist) Liberty: only negative absence of interference Journey of liberalism classical (progressive)->utilitarianism(status Quo)->modern liberalism (due to socialism) after capitalists gained power,they turned to status quo,  modern liberalism causes: rise of workers movement protection of capitalism, utilitarianism changed by Mill	Causes rise of workers' movement liberalism changed to protect itself (Mill) bringing in idealism Features positive liberalism Philosophy: TH Green liberty is capacity liberty consist of doing something which is worth doing doing not at cost of anybody's dignity liberty is capacity of doing something which is as per law of our being as per human statement Human consciousness postulates liberty,  liberty involves rights. Rights demand state. liberty at heart of  liberalism state is source of virtue will, not force  is the basis of the state political obligation- reason why man should be obliged to state statement of TH green Book- Principles on political obligation state 'hinders the hindrances' role of state state hinders the hindrances that come in the path of liberty welfare state was established on the ideas of Keyens and Galbraith Laski every state is known by the rights it maintain rights are those condition of life without which no man can seek in general to be at his best social order not based on recognition of claims of persons is based on sand rights are claims not empty of duties functional theory of rights liberal(no equality)->social (no liberty)-> modern liberal (both) wanted states's intervention if state will not control capital, capital will control state social and economic rights- Part 4 of Indian constitution inspired Fabian socialism against fascism, supported international peace Assumption of social liberal human nature: social and moral society: natural, focus on common good state: source of virtue liberty: capacity absence of external as well as internal impediments to motion equality: fair equality of opportunity affirmative action social policy: welfare functions	rolling back of state, market fundamentalism 1970s: Thatcherism, Reagenism (UK, US) 1990s: All world (global) 1st world- Thatcherism, Reagenism 2nd world: shock therapy 3rd world: Structural Adjustment Program WTO in 1995: symbol cause: welfare state faced sovereign debt crisis, gave rise to new despots (bureaucrats) welfare state first in US based on ideas of Keynes an Galbraith introduced in form of New Deal Acts by Roosevelt in UK in 1940s by Labour Party on recommendation of Beueridge report welfare state= fiscal deficit, corruption, nanny state (from craddle to grave), black money Washington consensus: James Williamson Reduced FD pro-industry reforms pro-growth subsidies trade liberalism promotion of FDI PSU disinvestment deregulation competitive exchange rate poverty eradication: trickle down Philosophical basis: revival of classical liberalism Hayek: father of Neo liberalism, inspired Thatcher against planning planning is road to serfdom only market can allocate resources against progressive taxation- bonded labour money goes to bureaucrats and politicians charity justice social justice is unachievable, it is feature of human soul, not society/state social justice is mirage revival of classical liberalism Classical liberals favour state for non-market led activities. Neo-rightists prefer market is solution for all Robert nozick book- anarchy,state and utopia non-aggression (don't force to tax) progressive taxation= bonded labour minimal state is inspiring as well as right nightwatchman state Milton Friedman         : market necessary for freedom Book- capitalism and freedom Murray Rothbard:      central bank is legislative fraud politicians, bureaucrats are robbers
Social Liberalism	SOCIALISM	Marxism (after Marx)
neo-liberal inequalities- concentration of wealth in hands of few no trickle down effect protest against WTO Amartya Sen noble prize elevated social liberalism capacity building: will help in extracting benefit of globalisation Joseph Stiglitz : reforms in IMF, WB (democratic deficit) Book: globalisation and its discontent book 2- making globalisation work post washington consensus (stiglitz) market needs govt intervention (not control economy) involvement of developing countries in decision no one-size fit policies (regional variation required) Philosophical basis John Rawls:  Theory of justice fair equality of opportunity liberal egalitarian influenced Dworkin, Sen Dworkin supports equality of resources social liberalism sen supports equality of capabilities similar to modern liberalism, analysed its weaknesses focus on capacity building investment in health, education state= regulation private (create jobs) civil society (ensure transparency) based on Sen's idea; Human development Index by Maqbool Haq	endless varieties, not specific socialism is like a hat that has lost its shape because everyone wears it- EM Joad universal adult franchise, right to vote for poor hence everyone supports socialism origin modern west against capitalism social ownership over means of production- economic doctrine equality (social and economic) is core value substantive, not procedural/formal equality of outcomes not just opportunity not proportionate but absolute Human nature: social, believe in fraternity (comrade) Society: natural, prior to individual State Yes: fabian, nehruvian no: gandhian, marxist freedom:  freedom from necessities liberal concept is alienation method peaceful revolutionary Socialism before marx evolutionary (utopian) St. Simon    , charles Fourier , Robert Owen lack of scientific understanding (utopianism) appealed to conscience utopian after marx revolutionary: marx, mao, lenin revisionism: bernstein edward , kautsky karl 'erfurt program' parliamentary method (right to vote) German Social Democracy: Ferdinand Lasselle similar to Bernstein Fabian: George Bernard Shaw ,                       Sidney and Betric Webb , Annie Besant , Pt. Nehru british, peaceful constitutional led by middle class roman general Fabius only when social condition favourable middle class intellectuals (fabian societies) socialism should be common sense state led socialism- welfare state work consistently for it (permeation) very much close to modern liberalism Guild socialism: GDH Cole between fabian and syndicalism british, peaceful constitutional association different (labours, plumbers) not only workers but doctors, lawyers GDH cole idea Functional representation (multi-member constituency) functional parliament  one house territorial one house functional primacy of economy (class-class struggle) Syndicalism: emile pougoit ,              george sorel,                ferdinend pelloutier French  violent workers union aim dominance of working class- similar to dictatorship of proletariat benefits economic- real interest principles of marxism (historical materialism, dialectical materialism, class struggle) inspired by Sorel: reflection of violence support strike, lockdown all powers with workers economic state to replace political state marxian socialism revolutionary/scientific community	Orthodox Soviet or political marxism mature marx: book- communist manifesto key principle historical materialism dialectical materialism class struggle  exponents Lenin peter who denied his master 'politics is concentrated form of economics' peasantry feudal country communist party- Vanguard of Revolution middle class intellectuals theory of imperialism: highest stage of capitalism book- imperialism: highest form of capitalism not white man's burden evolution of capitalism: mercantile-> industrial-> finance red book nationalist struggle- supported movement  in colonies Mao 1st to implement marxism in asia against feudalism- pragmatic influenced by Machiavelli, Marx, tradition of peasant revolts in China peasantry= central role strongly nationalist violent dialectics (contradictions) antagonistic: peasant and feudal class non-antagonistic: which can be solved (people and national bourgeoise) continuous revolutions cultural revolution let hundred flowers bloom, let hundreds of school of thought flourish need to clear reactionary elements man of action red book: guirella warfare revolution only through 'barrel of gun' Rosa luxemborg Lenin/berstein contemporary revolution (spontaneous) modified theory of imperialism=> capitalism is  inherently imperialistic, nationalistic and militaristic Neo Francfurt/critical criticised soviet marxism since no freedom which was ultimate aim of marx culture should be taken as part of basic structure focus on alienation young marx no freedom in either east or west critical of science: only specific rationality (consumerism) lieutenant of capitalism undermined importance of values from life humans reduced to mindless consumer of utilities project Marx as philosopher interpreting freedom aim: make man free didn't believe that man can be liberated (pessimist) problem: capitalism: man will remain alienated/slave capitalism can't be defeated mass culture (consumerism) reason: ICT, role of advertisement industry culture became basic structure (produced, promoted, distributed) production of cultural items at strong pace culture is industry- Hollywood, etc man finds happiness in collecting items of utility humans work mindlessly to accumulate consumer items- hence no freedom exponent: Herbert Marcuse book: one dimensional man earlier multi-dimensional, now only consumer we are living under authoritarianism, only illusion of democracy few persons dictating choices American culture (pop culture) serves protection of capitalism instead of greater progress, we are moving towards greater slavery, (reverse dialectics) Theodore Adorno music industry only specific music is promoted which promotes pop culture Structural thinker: Althusser book: for marx opposed critical school- mature marx is real marx marx model: base and superstructure correction reduced focus on economic structure and gave multi-structural model E.g.- Russian revolution started from political structure
Fascism	Feminism	Post Modernism
features propaganda hodge podge of ideologies / political opportunism Gandhi- worst manifestation of modernism (Machiavellianism) emerged in Europe in interwar period supremacy of state (dictatorship) duty and discipline- no rights economic system autarky self sufficient, minimum integration corporate state foreign policy expansionist war is to men what maternity is to women- Mussolini society solidarity with race- social solidarity Hitler- fascism= creative destruction  against enlightenment (individualism) counter-enlightenment borrowings Plato (philosopher king)- unquestionable obedience Machiavelli (no ethics)- ends justify means Hobbes (absolutism) Rousseau (general will) Hegel (state is march of god) Nietzche : superman (leader) Bergson (passion>reason) Herder (cultural nationalism) Sorel (violence and war: book- reflections on violence) myths play most important part in politics Charles Maurass (integral nationalism) Mussolini; book- on principles of fascism democracy is the luxury of rich nations, parliament is a talking shop nothing above, against or over the state Hitler: lebensraum: great living space for german creative destruction: bring back the old order types fascism-state nazism- race salazarism-portugal peronism (argentina) causes theory 1 Nolte product of circumstances - socio economic conditions when democracy in non-democratic society no stable coalitions, attraction towards authoritarian leaders hence demogaugic leaders fool people to come to power` theory 2 human nature- Eric Fromm : 'fear of freedom' ordinary people fear freedom- freedom leads to insecurity hence attraction towards strong leaders analysis sociology of knowlege: karl mannheim every theory based on circumstance fascism ideology of elite class capitalism requires fascism- laski communism is form of fascism- Hannah, popper capitalism becomes fascism in crisis situation ideology of centre-right (middle class) Ortega Gasset : fascism is revolt of masses	meta-ideology (infighting) concern: unequal status of women origin Plato (anyone can be in guardian class) JS Mill, the 19th century philosopher has held that all forms of slavery is abolished but the slavery of women continues Waves 1st wave:  liberal feminism equal civil and political rights Mary Wollstonecraft : mother of feminism french revolution: charter on rights of women personalities: suffragate movement Mary Stanton , Emilie Pankhurst , Elizabeth, Slyviva New Zealand- 1893: right to vote to women socialist feminism:  Engels   in his book: origin of family, Private property and state supported women participation in communist movement; liberation of women<=>capitalism end lenin: progressive thought: (Alexandra Kollerstai in cabinet Stalin reversed- Mother Heroines to those who produced more children Contemporary demand; maternity leave, equal wages etc GDP should include domestic labour 2nd wave-  radical feminism actual feminism; women problem are different from men develop feminist terminology, literature liberal and socialist theories of women are masculinist theories (Male point of view) sex and gender are different sex- biological, gender- societal Simone de Beauvoir - one is not born women, one becomes women mother of radical feminism author of 'second sex' personal is political- Carole Hanish gendered society: favouring 1 sex over other patriarchy basic structure violence against women specific for women  female foeticide honour killing mutilation of genital organs personal is political-  women neglected in politics (philosophy also)- except Plato, Mill started from Aristotle family is sphere of altruism- Hegel Aristotle separated personal from political Catherine Maccinnon  ; when she looks at state, state is male; lack of participation of women rape laws are full of loopholes institutions have also become patriarchal Susan Moller Okin:  book: gender, justice and family- 4 interpretation of personal is political state and family are different spheres even when laws made,  male dominant laws heterosexual family:  develops patriarchal views- hence single parent family women be within 4 walls differentiated equality; special provisions since specific violence/treatment Iris Marian Young : liberal/socialist feminist demanded equality of status of women prominent scholars Betty Friedan - feminine Mystique USA interview (white american)-1960s they were not happy reason: patriarchy-perpetuated by myths (essential women quality) magazines (housewives) systemic manner- education loose attraction so marry early so less education, hence subordination increases Sigmund Freud- psychologist most important objective of women is to look attractive to men Simon De Beauvoir- the second sex french criticised singmond sigmond freud has constructed the myth that women suffer from penis envy and man suffer from castration complex influenced by Sartre-existentialism due to religion existence is prior to essence existence- what we are essence- identity given to us by others difference between good faith (faith in self) and bad faith (faith in god) one is not born women, one becomes woman child born is made an object and given values throughout society keeps woman in the state of immanence and does not allow women to achieve transcendence woman is secondary- woman is provisional men is primary, women is the other there is no women problem, it is men problem features of women (essential feminism) is determined by men to suit women subordination there is no women problem, it is men problem no black problem, it is white problem no jewish problem, anti-semitism problem feminity- construct of civilisation- not to do with biology, psychology, intellect men also suffer from patriarchy motherhood is myth women suffer dilemma between existence as human and destiny as woman Kate Millett - sexual politics (book) Shulamith Firestone - Dialectic of sex marxist turned feminist 3rd wave Post feminism: Susan Faludi , book-Backlash western concept women liberated, hence enjoy womenhood New feminism: advocated by church; both sex respect each other Black feminism: Bell Hooks , Anjella Davis differentiate between white and black women Post colonial feminism: Chandra Moanti Talpade , Sarojini Sahoo problem in 3rd world countries are also of racism, neo-colonialsim (MNCs), etc Post modern feminism: Judith Buttler no particular way of defining  gender is construction of language gender is 'performative term' Eco-feminism nature is close to women than men exponents: Francoise d Eaubonne (coined in 1974) Eugene Dubois Mary Daly- Gyn ecology Vandna Shiva both women and nature are exploited women are more dependent on nature, hence worse sufferer criticism: based on eternal feminism (women have specific quality Agenda 21- sustainable development with women empowerment	France post WW2 from 1648- WW2 (modern age) emerged against modernity: initially in art, literature, philosophy modernity led to war, environment degradation, homogenisation first used by Lyotard : The post modern condition (book) increduility towards meta narratives (disbelief in any grand theory) features don't believe in authority of any system of knowledge no absolute truth no hierarchy no fundamental principles behind anything truth don't exist what majority believes, hence truth is majoritarian Foucault: Knowledge is power exponent Lyotard, Foucault , Deridda Influences Marx- base=structure false consciousness Gramsci- hegemony Althusser- interpellation diffusion of values of dominant class through ideological state apparatus Einstein- relativity, no objectivity Thomas Kuhn : scientific paradigm book- the structure of scientific revolution evolution of paradigm- science works on some conceptual paradigm (conceptual frameworks) pre-paradigmatic:  present paradigm explains phenomena crisis- when present paradigm doesn't explain concepts new paradigm Popper: falsification (truth is the limit of our knowledge) Nietzche : father of post-modernism god is dead no ultimate truth intellectuals are liars against enlightenment tradition (objectivity and hierarchy of science) will to power inside us stronger than will to life theories are built to exercise power superman (who goes against convention) majority is prisoner of conventional morality Lyotard multiple stories- not just one Deridda: deconstruction way of interpreting text study world by deconstruction any understanding is actually a misunderstanding human language is not developed to communicate completely Foucault: discourses set of ideas, said in manner that it appears truth we don't discover truth, we construct truth 'there are regimes of truth' Edward Said : orientalism ideological, purposive explanation of history of orient to manufacture history of orient knowledge-power connection to justify imperialism, colonial masters manufactured history to show barbaric east and civilized west Post-colonialism result of orientalism decolonisation of history theories written from perspective of west Edward said Homi Bhabha : book- the location of culture rejected binaries and given hybridities no description of east and west culture as different Gayatri Spiwak can sub-altern speak will west listen do they have capacity to listen

End of Ideologies

1. emerged in 1960s by western scholars
2. exponents: Daniel bell
   
   , Seymour Martin Lipset
   
1. Lipset influenced by WW Rostov
   
   - book: stages of economic growth- A non-communist manifesto
2. politics- redundant, only economics
3. concern= not ideology but development
4. both in east or west, irrespective of ideology, similar administrative system (bureaucratic- technocratic)
3. liberalism incorporated socialism- hence worker-capitalist issues are solved
4. criticism: criticised as an ideology (marxists)
1. attempt of western scholars to establish supremacy of western way of life
2. Macpherson (liberal egalitarian) C Wright Mills (elitist), Alasdair MacIntyre (communitarian)

End of history

1. Francis Fukuyama 1989
   
1. collapse of USSR
2. no contender to western liberal democracy- hence liberalism is end of history
1. end of ideological evolution
2. democracy everywhere except Arab exceptionalism
1. principle of democracy and islam are contradictory
3. dialectical materialism: end of contradictions
1. history moved in dialectical way (as given by Marx and Hegel) and western liberal model won
2. Fukuyama was also influenced by Alexander Kojeve
   
   : history will end in establishment of universal and homogenous state
4. supplements US hegemony; Arab exceptionalism (non-democracy)
1. Islam= anti-democracy
5. modification by Fukuyama: due to US-Afg war, question-mark on US hegemony
1. liberalism and capitalism are under attack
2. criticism
1. Samuel P Huntington
   
   : clash of civilisation (earlier clash of ideology)
1. history never ends, only repeats- clash of ideology has given way to clash of civilisation
2. features
1. clash of civilisation throughout history
2. culture- man's identity (more consciousness due to globalisation)
3. major civilisation are 9 (African, Latin American, Buddhist, Indian, Chinese, Japanese, western (US) , orthodox (russian)
3. core conflicts: US-china
4. peripheral conflicts: west-islam
1. since islam is internally divided
2. no core state
3. can be manged till no core state
4. US-Islam conflict
1. due to US policies in middle east
2. confidence to mujahideen- since defeated one superpower, can defeat other also
5. criticism: clash between fundamentalism (islam vs market)
1. US-china economic
2. can't explain civil wars, west support to Pak, Turkey
6. advise
1. prevent china-islam axis