Western Political Thought ancient Greek Thought Features of Greek Society city state agriculture slavery patriarchal hierarchical/graded reason>>religion
| Socrates (What constitutes Good Life) (died 399BC) features 'wisest man' knew nothing
father of ethics ethics is branch of philosophy ('art of living')
'father of philosophy' plato's teacher/imagination dialectics theory of knowledge statements Knowledge is virtue unexamined life is not worth living
Pre-Socratic what constitutes life
theory of knowledge context pre-socratic thought his focus on to live good life
good life knowledge->dialectics (from opinion to knowledge) beliefs conceptual knowledge
listen to soul
life punishment to drink 'Hemlock' misleading youth
didn't escape since 'unquestionable obedience to state'
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Plato (429-347 BC) Features idea: philosophers should be rulers contribution: theory of philosopher king perspective: utopian prominent works republic (young, utopian) the laws (practical)
influences Socrates all that is platonic is socratic
Pythagoras mathematical principles
Heraclitus change is characteristic of world
Parmenides change and continuity remain together
father of political philosophy
introduction idealist Aristotle's ideal state is plato's second best state
father of political philosophy radical ideas
concern poor state of Athens diagnosis: corruption in ruling class reason: ignorance solution: philosopher should be king
Theory of ideas (based on theory of knowledge) idea of perfection theory of souls (myth of metals)- since birth types gold (reason) silver (courage) copper (appetite)
soul guides about right and wrong since seen in Kingdom of God
idea of perfection->idea->reason-> philosopher
quotes reality is the shadow of ideas critic: Aristotle's ideal state is Plato's second best state
aligory of caves reality: shadow idea: going out
why given ideal state who: idea wale=>philosopher kings
keywords matter- world of change idea- world of permanence, perfect manifestation
Sophists first political educator sophia= wisdom taught that money is important socrates considered them ignorant realist (ought should derive from is)
Theory of Justice features broad: different sections righteousness method: dialectics Republic: Concerning justice
statements justice is the first virtue of social system, just like truth is the first virtue of any system of thought- Rawls justice is the interest of the strong- Thrasymachus justice is a virtue- Plato Prithvim Dharmam Dhritam
discussion Cephalus: justice is duty and dues Plato: mad man weapons
2nd character: doing right with friend, wrong with enemy Plato: who knows right and wrong just soul can't do wrong
3rd: justice is the interest of the strong (realist/sophists) world understands argument of power rather than power of argument Plato: ought should not be derived from is. lays down foundation of ethics power alone can't give good life, reason is important
4th character: compromise between weak and strong (pragmatic) contract that strong protect weak, weak don't criticize strong Plato: both require state justice= reason required. ensures peace, therefore excellence
Plato's own theory need idea to understand justice, linked to quality of soul justice= virtue of all virtue
just= happy, peace, required for excellence where reason dominate is just, happy
ideal state= based on justice (god's idea)-> requires reason the state is individual writ large- Plato state does not come out of oak or rock, it inhers in the mind of people living in the state
idea of justice at individual= idea of justice at state idea= categorise people functional speciality gold= make laws silver= security appetite= task of production
non-interference due to interdependence
individual character= state's nature state is individual writ large
state= individual writ large=> same principles apply
Theory of Education combined features of Athens and Sparta Education Sparta free education to all (women) military education strict control over what is taught
Athens focus on logic
required to make obedient citizen elaborate= mental+physical+spiritual 1st 6 years gymnastic= physical music= mental moral stories= spiritual
6-20= general subjects (history, geo, sci) test at 20: failed= producer 20-30: level increase test at 30: failed= security
30-35: dialectics 35-50: 15 years practical
education= filtration to make just state scheme: filtration through exam to divide into class select philosophers through process and they will rule philosophers reluctant to rule but rule since duty towards statem
statements criticism: solution can't be worse than disease
Theory of Communism features common ownership of property communism of family (additional safeguard) not all marry state will decide ( to create high level of society, only selected will be allowed) no personal family liberate woman ( to focus on state affairs)
only for guardian class (gold, silver) not required and possible for copper
prevent nepotism
critic (Aristotle) practical (property= reason) family= source of motivation, emotion
moderation (good state, not best) golden mean
conservative (family, marriage) collective wisdom of ages
disciple/critic common sense
Marx (critic) (comparison) stateless end of property end of class violence vs sacrifice materialist superficial similarities between Plato and Marx, fundamental differences
Theory of Philosopher King philosopher (sacrifice/knowledge) Iran's supreme leader
Athens (ignorance) absolute power for no law/ordinance is mightier than knowledge (Plato) can't change constitution
constitution is supreme criticism (aristotle) rule of law should be supreme collective wisdom utopian situation
Assessment of Plato statements Plato as first fascist- Popper
Plato as totalitarian- Popper/Isiah Berlin unquestionable obedience to philosopher king
Plato as enemy to open society- Popper essentialism (based on idea) holism (state>>individual) historicism (ideological use of history)
'spell of Plato'- Popper Levenson wrote in defence of Plato against Popper's criticism both are uncomparable (time/place changed) the entire western political philosophy is nothing but footnote to Plato one can be either platonic or anti-paltonic, but one can't be aplatonic
totalitarian feminist (but not the sole aim) enemy to open society Vol-1 of book by Popper: Plato, Hegel, Marx are enemy to open society holism (state>individual) essentialism (idea)- dictating others how to live historicism (played with ideology)
nothing is aplatonic
| Aristotle (384-322 BC) Aritotle emerges as intellectual collusus. No man before him and no man after him could hope to rival his intellect.- Barnes
greatest disciple and critic father of political science books : Politics socratic, critic of sophist state>individual pragmatic ruler need not to be wise in the world of ideas, rather he has to be worldly wise- Aristotle
believes in moderation
Theory of idea idea not independent of matter (pragmatic)
Theory of state political animal man is by nature a political/social animal state comes in existence for the sake of life and continues for the sake of good life state is highest of all associations fulfill all requirements
one who can live without state is either beast or god, he can't be man state is union of family and villages
needs of man (family<village<state) since man is not self-sufficient
logic state= meaningful life
teleological argument (destiny of man)
Theory of citizenship citizen= native, adult, male, propertied citizenship= duty to participate in affairs of state (legislative, judicial) if don't have, no citizenship time(woman) maturity(children) reason(slaves) physical capability (old)
evaluation narrow conception sensible about concept of duty
Theory of slavery statements slavery is natural as well as desirable or useful institution
slaves natural (theory about them) prisoner of war
man (natural) masters (reason+courage) mentally strong
slaves (physically strong)
slavery-> useful economy (more physical work) state (time to master) master (enhance virtue) slave( needs master)
reform if slaves develop virtues, master should set him free treat slaves properly
criticism statements each man is an end in itself- Kant Benevolent despotism, white man's burden: justification
Theory of Property features common ownership, common use rejects as communism
common ownership, individual use rejects as exploitation
individual ownership, common use favours Gandhi's trusteeship
Theory of constitution after reading 158 constitutions constitution=state=government statements Book: politics topic: states, constitution; their types, revolutions
law is a reason without passion- Aristotle (on rule of law)
no. of rulers and form for self= tyranny for public= monarchy
few self= oligarchy public= aristrocracy
many self=democracy (ignorant poor) public= polity (middle class)
best form= philosopher king (monarchy) worst= tyranny second best= polity (middle class) golden mean (best practicable) not very rich/arrogant possess reason
second worst= democracy (poor)
Theory of revolution it is unjust to treat equals unequally, it is equally unjust to treat unequal equally treat masters and slaves differently
reason inequality->justice distributive (distribute in proportion to contribution rectificatory: punishment proportional to crime
causes (specific) monarchy (family conspiracy) aristrocracy (conspiracy by poor) democracy (conspiracy by rich)
general causes passion for power seeking change rivalries foreigner intrusions rewarding who don't deserve when small changes are ignored
solution solve above problems spirit of obedience inculcate patriotism teach civic virtues
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Machiavelli (1469-1527) features italy end of medieval age child of renaissance Machiavelli is child of renaissance- Laski
'Prince'- best book on statecraft= how to run state management of power
bourgeoise class nationalism father of political realism secularism separation of church and state reason due to renaissance
renaissance->reason->(science)(secular)*religion(religions)->industrial revolution-> capitalism-> individualism, materialism, utilitarianism, nationalism perspective realist (power view of politics) child of darkness
materialist (matter is real) elitist (prince not commoner)
For questions on Machiavelli, Introduction: Prince is the best book ever written in the field of statecraft. It contains the set of advices by Machiavelli to a political entrepenuer with respect to the various aspects of the field of politics.
Prince history+psychology purpose= Italy not a nation, divided against feudal lords, church was diplomat in France- called as Mr Nihitio (Zero)
instructions to enterprising person to consolidate power nature of politics= bad (realist) one who sacrifices, what is for what ought to be, will not only ruin himself but also bring destruction to his own people dunning: it is a paradox that everyone is Machiavellian in politics, but no one accepts himself to be Machiavellian
Sabine: Machiavelli's thought are narrowly dated and narrowly located
qualities of prince fox, lion (reason+courage) Prince has to be clever like fox and brave like lion
fear>love it is better for the prince to be feared than loved
ethics in politics: politics has its own morality Gandhi called western civilisation based on Machiavellianism as 'satanic' dual morality: prince and common man ends justify means
religion utilitarian approach can be useful for prince
human nature selfish, ungrateful (psychology), deceitful support not constant by people to prince
coward (use this) materialist (create conditions to earn property), avaracious (greedy) man can forget the loss of his fatehr, but will never forget the loss of his patrimony
army of only nationals expansionary foreign policy (rule through puppet) when culture of foreign land is different (lietenant)
fortune (bravery) circumstance not in control face tough time with bravery (optimistic) fortune is like woman, it embraces brave man- machiavelli
empirical method led to behaviouralism foundation of political realism intellectual precursor of realist school of international relations
Discourses (other book) republican govt (where people virtuous) whenever necessary- monarchy, wherever possible- republic never aristocracy/oligarchy
common man>noble class (challenge to king) preference
| Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679)  intro: sovereignty as core concept of modern political theory. Hobbes is first person to give complete theory of sovereignty and hence rightly called as first modern thinker sovereignty: state is supreme (theory given by him) avoids confusion need= capitalism (contract enforcing agency)
sovereignty-->positive law is supreme state reason punishment no variation, is certain
concern as thinker british civil war/puritan revolution chaos, no law and order right to life (absolute right)--> no one can take away given by god, state only protector hence individualist greatest of all individualist considers man prior to state
state's function: preservation of life; otherwise resist
possessive individualist man is individualist by nature, social by necessity whatever man has is due to own efforts, not required to give back to society
Absolutist: state is supreme hobbes is greatest of all absolutist man has liberty only where law is silent
law: that comes from state and has power to punish that law is law that comes from state and has power of punishment
state: protect life, use coercive action legally state is a institution that has monopoly over use of coercive force gandhi criticised modern state due to institutional violence state is 'leviathan'
utilitarianism: hedonism laid the foundation pain vs pleasure since men is hedonistic, men is materialistic, individualistic, possessive, power seeking, fearful
social contract: state and society not natural mechanistic view scientific method description of human nature state of nature man without state
process of contract terms and conditions, obligations, liabilities
hobbes's method: resolutive compositive observe, divide, establish cause-effect influenced by geometry, psychology
absolute state supreme over everything liberty only where no law
punishment avoid double sovereignty
human nature power seeking/hedonist life of man is continuous search of power, after power, which ceases only with his death
state of nature: war state of nature is state of war of all against all, in the state of nature like of man is nasty, poor, brutish and short
social contract to come out of state of nature to avoid pain create authority fear of loss of life I and fear were born together
applicable to all sovereignty transferred right to self-preservation kept right to self-preservation is inalieneable
give all rights to authority i give all my rights to this assembly or to this person (state), on the conditions that all will give up their rights
Liberty absence of law liberty is where law is silent liberty signifies properly the absence of opposition in the external impediments to motion
absolute state man has only two options: either to live in the state of absolute authority or absolute anarchy earlier in state of nature, man was sovereign, now state is sovereign
don't give liberty as results into anarchy priority to security
Law natural when reason>passion but man has limited reason natural law are not law but 'article of peace' or 'councel of prudence' rejects
positive definite, made by state power of punishment
covenants without swords are nothing but words
Assessment hobbes as greatest of all individualist methodological individualists (evolve political theory on this basis) normative individualists (nothing wrong in being individualist Hobbes starts as an individualist, concludes as absolutist-Macpherson
Hobbes absolutism is derivative of his individualism-Sabine
useless (Leviathan)- Vaughan Hobbes is father of all philosophers- marx Leviathan is useless as a book of history and fruitless as a book of politics
while bodin was standing on the gate of modernity, it was Hobbes who jumped inside the gate first modern thinker-contested who given theory of sovereignty Machiavelli/Hobbes/Bodin Bodin gives sovereignty in secular matters only to state
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John Locke (1632-1704)  features father of liberalism scholar of capitalist class absolute right to property (possessive individual)- no one can take away property England not consistent like but based on common sense similar to Aristotle
Types of right Customary legal natural (Hobbes)- basis for human rights, fundamental rights (right to life)
given the principles of theory of separation of power principle of toleration majoritarian democracy
Works Two Treatises of Civil Govt not state 1st book criticized Hobbes through Filmer (can't directly criticize Hobbes) Filmer criticized social contract why should future generations should accept
Filmer gave absolute authority to king
2nd Treatise: theory of govt
Locke state not family, hence not absolute the authority of statesman is different from authority of master- Aristotle citizen not completely dependent on state, hence no absolute
property based on labour
social contract human nature: enlightened self interest since saw glorious revolution, has balanced view of human. man has reason, so won't harm others reason in man guides him, not to harm the other in his life, liberty, health and property
state of nature peace, mutual assistance, goodwill enjoying natural rights
why contract? if someone is not following due to passion also don't give absolute powers to state since reason prevails no common authority, everyone interpreted laws in own context
contract 1st= civil society 2nd= govt civil society= all- (family+govt) feature of liberal society natural society (rights)->civil society (recognise rights)-> govt (guarantees rights)
1st contract: recognised rights 2nd contract: formation of govt transfer of rights make law, execute and adjudicate non-transferable: life, liberty and property
formation by consent-> election (majoritarian) consent: explicit and tacit (hidden)
powers of govt limited powers limited by fundamental rights: life, liberty, property (limit powers of govt) trusteeship relationship right to revolt when govt acts against wishes of people peacefully (people are rational)
theory of rights first to give natural rights theory
statement: no law, no liberty liberty: only if reason reason: law (due process of law)
theory of property the sole purpose of the formation of commonwealth is protection of property function of state= protection of property absolute right over property property= labour/personality Locke is an individualist out and out
earlier property common, those who were enterprising became owner, those who were lazy became poor libertarian absolute liberty Locke is scholar of possessive individualism
limitations on right to property labour: no fraud, only labour no one can deprive other no one can destroy property
on toleration tolerate all faiths except atheist Hobbes didn't provide this and state can dictate even in terms of religion
normative individualist nothing wrong in being individualist
assessment lock is individualist out and out (throughout) normative methodological
| JS Mill (1806-1873) Liberty is transendental utility. (for utilitarianism)
if there is anyone who is liberal, it is Mill Book- On Liberty extensive idea on liberty: freedom of speech and expression, association
inconsistent thinker crossroad of negative and positive liberty liberal as well as Prophet of empty liberty- Ernst Barker (positive liberal) reluctant democrat as well as advocate of democracy
On Utilitarianism I regard utility as the highest appeal of all human action. However, it is the utility in its widest sense. It is based on the understanding of man as progressive being dominant in Britain in 17th-18th century philosophy of common man (capitalist) wide appeal among common man pleasure and pain (easy to understand)
criticized as pig's philosophy (Carlyle)
destroyed utilitarianism Peter who denied his master tried to defend utilitarianism since Bentham was his master brought concept of idealism in utilitarianism (influence of Socrates, Plato)
sovereign masters (ought to do) - pain and pleasure Greatest happiness of Greatest numbers: policy of state
On Liberty Prophet of empty liberty- Ernst Barker (positive liberal) Mill is scholar of abstract individualism- Barker harm principle: state intervention in other regarding ( when harm to others) functions only huge ambiguity, so scope for interference by state
brought liberty at centre-stage of liberty state also get benefit of liberty of individuals no state becomes good by dwarfing its own citizens
harm principle- while deciding liberty absolute liberty in self-regarding the sole purpose for which mankind is warranted to interfere in the life of the other person, is to prevent harm to others. Self-harm is no basis to interfere. Over himself and over his body man is sovereign huge ambiguity in other harm and gives huge scope for state's interference
inconsistency since people understood the harm of absolute liberty but positive liberty wasn't established abstract individualism modern liberals, communitarians atomistic individual doesn't exist as said by classical liberal
on Freedom of speech and expression all silencing is an assumption of infalliability if all but one has a difference of opinion, majority should listen to that person. Just like tyranny of one can't be accepted on tyranny of all, similarly tyranny of all can't be accepted on one person. most important right, to lead good life only humans can speak, hence if state denies, means state treat citizen worse than animals
harm principle applied essence of democracy- not just about number but about truth
On Democracy champion of democracy direct democracy (best) representative democracy (best practicable) reluctant democrat: only for few states, there should be democracy statements Benevolent despotism is good for barbarians Book: on Representative govt if people can't come to democracy, we can bring democracy to their doorsteps- Nehru (against reluctant democracy)
weighted vote (educated, propertied) plural voting (more than 1 constituency) proportional representation (minority- capitalist) strengthen house of lords concerned about future of democracy since working class asking for right to vote
on women champion of rights of women wanted to improve their life
Utilitarianism (bentham) utility as principle of ethics pig's philosophy: basis for justification of exploitation of workers pleasure in terms of quantity, not quality (all people are same) pushpin is as good as poetry
Principle of GHGN- no state interference Mill revises difference in quality and quantity pleasure and happiness different People also differ it is better to be Socrates dissatisfied than a fool satisfied
Mill on Freedom of Speech and Expression most important right harm principle applied to lead good life (influence of Plato, Aristotle) essence of democracy statements All silencing is an assumption of infalliability if all but one has a difference of opinion, majority should listen to that person. Just like tyranny of one can't be accepted on all, similarly tyranny of all can't be expected on one person
Mill on democracy Reluctant majority's tyranny in colonies right to vote to working class influence of Aristotle, Machiavelli (republicanism)
reforms right to vote to women open ballot
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GRAMSCI
Introduction: chantal Mouffe, rightly says that we have entered into the era of Gramscianism in theory of Marxism. Marxist- 2nd most important in Marxism father of neo-marxism originator of structural and critical school
italian, contemporary of mussolini; founder of Communist party of italy purpose: identify reasons for failure of marx gramsci got impressed with theory of history given by Italian scholar Benedetto Croce emphasised on role of culture
theoretician of superstructures: gave importance to them
model of society 1st line of defence: civil society (establishes hegemony) attraction (hegemony) for bourgeoise way acts as cushion or shock absorber
2nd line is state together they are integral state
most important role played by intellectuals- maintain the system according to gramsci, every person is intellectual but every person doesn't perform the task of intellectuals generate values to perpetuate the system types of intellectuals traditional- those recognise before new system. eg- church father organic: come up with new system, from the system itself
capitalists maintained domination through coalition of like minded groups (engineers, technicians, etc) advice for working class: bring own intellectuals. eg- technicians, supervisors coalition- leadership (sub-altern class), with traditional intellectual also
for change, fight at both basic structure level and superstructure level
on revolution 2 staged war of position (counter hegemony), protracted war, against civil society war of maneuver (sudden attack)
Bipin Chandra: india's struggle for freedom gramscian theory
neo-marxism (origin in Gramsci) critical/frankfurt structural
reasons for failure of marx Croce: emphasised on history two level of change required superstructure: take days basic structure: take centuries to change
hegemony: leadership- soft power exercised on mind
dominant class generate consent by becoming sensitive to concerns of governed ruling class adopt some values of the governed produced on regular basis limit of common sense
Intellectual 'social stratum' which exercise an 'organisational function' traditional: church fathers function is to create consent in public due to their prestige traditional intellectuals have historical, organic intellectuals have sociological trails political party is organisation of organic intellectuals hence Communist party is needed
Ideology marx: ideology is epiphenomenal (secondary) hegemony is ideology of organic intellectuals
Contribution Stuart Hall major contribution of gramsci is in demonstrating the need to innovate new models to make sense of contemporary issues
huge influence on herbert marcuse, habermas, althusser
| Hannah Arendt only women no particular ideology phenomenology (experience based) civic republicanism school major works on origin of totalitarianism being jew in Germany, faced torture of nazism
on human condition given theory of action participation in politics by people scholar of 'civic republicanism' aristotle and machiavelli
Eichmann in Jerusalem banality of evil
On Violence
influenced by Karl Jaspers Heideggar St. Augustine Aristotle
On totalitarianism can be only experienced reign of terror, terror of violence
rule of violence for the sake of violence terror and ideology are two means terror justified through ideology
growth due to social and economic crisis modernity gives rise to totalitarianism modernity begins with explosion of nuclear weapons in hiroshima (signifies killing humanity)
due to economics, we forgot politics, state became totalitarian gave power to rule to centralised bureaucratic administration when depoliticised masses are enfranchised, it gives rise to totalitarianism when depoliticised masses get right to vote, it gives rise to demogaugic leaders
every state- totalitarian, extent depend on people's participation people's participation can reduce totalitarianism
loss of public sphere, substituted by 'fabricated reality' based on vision of leader superfluous masses ideology is required to destroy mental life convert class into mass convert human into superflous entities
absence of experience results into 'fiction' as reality characteristic of totalitarianism essence of terror possible only in country with superflous mass mix of public and private leader as infalliable
solution spontaneous political order generating new order (natality)
On Human condition (view on politics) participation in politics is most important economic situation (modernity) has affected man's ability to participate we controlled by representatives, bureaucrats ->state becomes totalitarian
Theory of action- part of On Human condition labour, work and action together is viva activa action (viva activa) (active life) labour basic needs (animal), no freedom (animal Laboran)
work professional actions (homo faber), partial freedom
action political involvement, complete freedom (zoon politicon) components of action- to achieve people's participation freedom (natality) capacity to do something new
plurality equality (all are equal) diversity (all are unique)
highest level of action when man performs political action, he achieves 'human condition'
thinking (viva-contemplativa) action>thinking defence for participatory and deliberative democracy raison d etre of politics is freedom and its field of experience is action
action and speech action<=> speech only where words and deeds have not parted company, where words are not empty and deeds are not brutual, where words are not used to hide but reveal when action match speech: conditio sine qua non (essential) but conditio per quam
in her book= 'promise of politics', she show politics coincide with freedom
On power Book- On Violence types force->nature power->collective (society), strength- individual violence->authority
always belong to people, characteristic of society always legitimate
is sui generis, only when collective
Banality of evil Eichmann in Jerusalem- Book evil became normal (banal) bureaucratic culture: just follow rules officer not responsible but culture of blind obedience to authority responsible, lack of critical thinking in society is responsible evil (not by her) ancient times: product of ignorance (Plato) medieval: of passion ( modern: unjust social condition (Rousseau)
banalisation occur when human crime are reduced to numbers
On ideology critic of ideology based on myths, although propounded as scientific ask people to follow, commit crime in name of ideology aim of totatlitarian education is never to instill conviction but to destroy capacity to think
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