Liberation from Colonial Rule

Latin America and Bolivar

June 24, 1821, Simón Bolí­ var, the great Liberator, led his forces against the Span­ish Army at the Battle of Carabobo. The Spanish had not yet been defeated across South America, but the Spanish monar­chy no longer had the will to fight back. The rest of the battles — in­cluding the Battle of Pinchincha on May 24, 1822 — finished up what Carabobo had esta­blished that South Ameri­ca’s many republics wanted to be sovereign.

Carabobo “was more than a battle. It was a geopolitical cam­paign”. After Bolívar’s armies de­feated the Spanish  the new States that emerged from Gran Co­lombia (Colombia and Venezuela) down to Bolivia (1825) produced a dynamic sense of their own sove­reignty. Carabobo was “an impor­tant step towards the whole inde­pendence of South America”.

U.S. President James Monroe on December 2, 1823, crafted the Monroe Doctrine. This policy suggested that now that European powers had lost their grip on the Americas, the USA will be the guarantor of continental stability. At that time, the U.S. did not have the technological or military means to subordinate all of the he­misphere. In 1898, when the U.S. intervened to remove the last ves­tiges of Spanish colonialism in Cu­ba and Puerto Rico, it took over both islands. Subsequently, U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt in his corollary to Monroe’s doctrine in 1904 said that the U.S. would ex­ercise its influence over the Amer­icas. Military invasions from Nica­ragua to Panama (1989) and coups from Guatemala (1954) to Bolivia (2019) brought Monroe’s speech into the world.

Latin American Countries and their independence

• Napoleon’s invasion of Spain in 1808 was the event that triggered the struggle for Latin America’s independence from Spain.
• Spanish colonies were kingdoms in their own right, constitutionally distinct from Spain but sharing a common monarch. When the monarchy in Spain suddenly lost its legitimacy when Bonaparte took over, colonies wanted independence.
• Simon Bolivar was a Venezuelan military leader who was instrumental in the revolutions against the Spanish empire in Latin American colonies and saw the opportunity to take advantage of the problems occurring in Spain.
• He led the independence movement against Spanish rule for six nations; Venezuela, Columbia, Panama, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia. Bolivar was hailed as El Libertador (The Liberator) and was himself involved into many battles. Bolivar was intrigued by the French and American Revolutions and familiar with the ideas of Enlightenment.
• Most of Latin America achieved its independence by 1825.

Chronic political instability and endemic military conflicts in Latin America in 19th Century

Gran Colombia (1819 - 1831):

• present-day Colombia, Ecuador, Panama and Venezuela and parts of northern Peru, Western Guyana and north western Brazil.
• Bolivar after witnessing the anarchy in New Granada, had determined that republicanism in South America could not follow the North American model.
• Bolivar believed that the South American societies had been kept in a condition of political immaturity through “Spanish tyranny”, and, therefore, were unqualified to handle an electoral democracy.
• Jamaica Letter of September 6, 1815 his ideas for American independence, and stated that South America should ‘not adopt the best system of government, but the one that is most likely to succeed.”
• He hoped to unite some countries of South America, similar to the United States to be known as Gran Colombia.
• Bolívar sought to implement a more centralist model of government in Gran Colombia,which included a lifetime presidency with the ability to select a successor.
• He dreamed of a united Spanish America and for that purpose he not only created Gran Colombia but also the Confederation of the Andes to unite the aforementioned with Peru and Bolivia.
• promoted network of treaties keeping the newly liberated South American countries together.
• He was unable to control the centrifugal forces which pushed outwards in all directions. Bolivar faced opposition from internal factions due to regional differences throughout the huge Gran Colombia. Bolivar ultimately failed in his attempt to prevent the collapse of the uniono Bolivar and lamented "those who have served the revolution have ploughed the sea."
• Gran Colombia was dissolved in 1831 due to:
• political differences that existed between supporters of federalism and centralism
• regional tensions among the peoples that made up the republic.
• successor states of Colombia, Ecuador, and Venezuela.

New Granada (1831 - 1858):

• created after dissolution of Gran Columbia.
• centralist unitary republic of present-day Colombia and Panama with smaller portions of Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Ecuador, Venezuela and Peru.
• In 1851, a civil war broke out when conservative and pro-slavery groups revolted against liberal president Jose Hilario Lopez, to prevent emancipation of disenfranchised groups and abolishment of slavery, in addition to a number of religious issues.
• New Granada was transformed in 1858 to the Granadine Confederation

Granadine Confederation (1858 - 1863):

• present-day Colombia and Panama and parts of northwestern Brazil.
• pro-federalist confederation as it gave more autonomy to provinces.
• rivalry between the conservative party and the Liberal party, ended in a Civil War (1860–1862).
• period of hostility against the Roman Catholic Church, and of divided regionalism.

Federalists Vs Centrists:

• Domestic wars often fought between federalists and centrists who ended up asserting themselves through the military repression of their opponents at the expense of civilian political life.

Cultural and Class divisions:

• new nations inherited cultural diversity of the colonial era and strived to create a new identity based around the shared European (Spanish or Portuguese) language and culture.
• Within each country there were cultural and class divisions that created tension and hurt national unity.
• Independence created a new, self-consciously "Latin American" ruling class and intelligentsia which avoided Spanish and Portuguese models in their quest to reshape their societies.
• looked towards other Catholic European models—in particular France—for a new Latin American culture, but did not seek input from indigenous peoples

Conflict in order to access resources:

• many areas borders were unstable, since new states fought wars with each other to gain access to resources, especially in the second half of the nineteenth century.
• Paraguayan War (1864–70; also known as the War of the Triple Alliance):
• Argentina, Brazil and Uruguay against Paraguay, which was utterly defeated.
• Paraguay suffered a demographic collapse
• War of the Pacific (1879–84):
• Chile defeated the combined forces of Bolivia and Peru.
• Chile gained control of saltpeter-rich areas, previously controlled by Peru and Bolivia, and Bolivia became a land-locked nation.
• Popular insurrections were often influential and repressed:
• 100,000 were killed during the suppression of a Colombian revolt between 1899 and 1902 during the Thousand Days' War.
• Mexican–American War (1846–48),
• Mexico lost over half of its territory to the United States.
• Brazil consolidated its control of large swaths of the Amazon Basin at the expense of its neighbors.
• In 1880s, the United States aggressive policy to defend and expand its political and economic interests in all of Latin America, which culminated in the creation of the Pan-American Conference, completion of the Panama Canal and the United States intervention in the final Cuban war of independence.

Gap between rich and poor:

• The restructuring of colonial economic and political realities resulted in a sizable gap between rich and poor, with landed elites controlling the vast majority of land and resources.

Emergence of Caudillos (military chiefs):

• The endemic political instability and the nature of the economy resulted in emergence of caudillos, military chiefs whose hold on power depended on their military skill and ability to dispense patronage.
• The political regimes were at least in theory democratic and took the form of either presidential or parliamentary governments. Both were prone to being taken over by a caudillo or an oligarchy.

Conservatives Vs Liberals:

• conservatives, who believed that preservation of the old social hierarchies served as the best guarantee of national stability and prosperity, and liberals, who sought to bring about progress by freeing up the economy and individual initiative.
• Some states did manage to have democracy: Uruguay, and partially Argentina, Chile, Costa Rica and Colombia. The others were clearly oligarchist or authoritarian. All of these regimes sought to maintain Latin America's lucrative position in the world economy as a provider of raw materials.

Arab World Egypt

Egypt was a part of the Roman Empire till 1640, thereafter it became a part of the Ottoman empire. The landing of Napoleon in Egypt in 1798 mark the beginning of a new phase in Egyptian history. The Egyptians fought hard against Napoleon and he was defeated forcing him to escape to save his life. Exit of Napoleon triggered a struggle for dominance among the local commanders. Finally Muhammad Ali Pasha emerged victorious in 1805 and ruled for more than four decades effectively.

British Domination Over Egypt

1. British and French traders became active in Egypt during the opening decades of 19th-century. Egyptian cotton was a very high-quality and was in greater demand in Britain and other industrialised nation Britain also wanted to secure a shorter and direct route to India and to safeguard its Indian empire.
2. Till the time Ahmed Ali Pasha rule Egyptians thrived as traders. But after his death weak Sultan sat on the throne and European colonial designs started becoming visible.
3. In 1854, digging of Suez Canal was started and it was open for trade in 1869. The canal was owned by Egyptian state, british and French companies.
4. Egyptian Sultan is like Syed Pasha and Ismail Pasha took huge loans from british and French companies to finance their luxurious lifestyles. But when these loans could not be repaid the shares owned by Egyptian Sultan’s in Suez Canal were purchased by british companies. As a result of which british influence increased in Egypt. Directions of the on field under british domination and kind of indirect british rule commenced in Egypt.

Nationalism in Arab World and Egypt

1. Early 20th century spirit of nationalism started becoming visible in the Arab world. It was based on linguistic, cultural and ethnic identity. Fragmentation of Ottoman Empire by the peacemakers of Paris further strengthened the spirit of nationalism. The Turkish domination over Arab territories was destroyed.
2. This spirit of nationalism emphasis on pan Arab unity on the one hand and independence of every Arab state on the other hand. Arab nationalism was strongly against the presence and dominance of foreigners in Arab world.
3. It emphasised on the glory of Arab civilisation that people of Arab world came from Atlantic Ocean to Arabian Sea to constitute one nation. They were bound together by common linguistic, cultural, religious and historical heritage. Arab nationalism hence wanted to remove these governments which were dependent on Western support.

Liberation of Egypt

1. The spirit of nationalism had gained great strength in Egypt by 1930s. This intense nationalist pressure forced the british government to sign the Treaty of London in 1936 with Egyptian leader Mohammad Pasha.
2. This treaty provided for the recognition of independence and sovereignty of Egypt by Britain and Egyptian recognition of british and French interest in Suez Canal.
3. Provisions of London treaty could not be implemented because in 1939 world war broke out and instead of withdrawing its forces Britain sent more troops to Egypt. Egyptian nationalists continued to raise their voice against british domination.
4. After the end of Second World War Egyptian nationalist movement gained further strength. Egyptian Sultan was a british puppet and did not support the Egyptian nationalist as a result the Sultan was overthrown in 1952 and Egypt was declared a republic. In 1953 General Mohammad Naguib became the Egyptian president.
5. This new government was expected to take strong action against foreign forces but the president failed to do so and was overturned by Colonel Naseer in 1954.
6. The new Egyptian President demanded immediate withdrawal of british and French forces from Egypt. When this demand was not accepted President Nasir declared nationalisation of Suez Canal on 26th of July 1956.
7. Nationalisation of Suez Canal was a big blow to british and French interest. It triggered a war between Egypt on one side and Britain and France on the other side.
8. Resolutions for withdrawal of forces from Egypt were vetoed in UN security council by Britain and France. As a result a resolution was adopted for the same in the UN General assembly and was passed with special majority. The moral pressure forced Britain and France to withdraw troops from Egypt.
9. All of this meant the downfall of british Empire. The pattern for leadership was given to America in 1946 and downfall british Empire started. Egypt completed it.

Zaghlul Pasha in the rise of Egyptian Nationalism

The dismemberment of the Ottoman Empire after 1918 resulted in Arabs falling prey to identity conflicts and foreign domination, and prepared the stage for a surge of nationalistic feelings in the region. Nations found themselves occupied by the victors of World War I – Britain and France. Nationalism divided Muslim ummah into political entities based on shared characteristics, such as language and culture. Thus, nationalism was seen as a new, imported idea.

Zaghlul, a liberal reformist and later father of Egyptian nationalism stepped in, putting into action his modernist, liberal vision of an independent nation free from the yoke of British occupation.

Role of Zaghlul Pasha in rise of Egyptian Nationalism

• The foundations of nationalism based by Mustafa Kamel , but Saad Zaghlul gave the nationalist movement a wider social dimension by engaging the urban masses. He advocated the slogan 'Egypt for Egyptians', Mustafa Kamel fought for Egypt's independence within the framework of the Ottoman Caliphate.
• At end of WW 1 Zaghlul increasingly began to call for Egyptian independence from Britain. He believed the best opportunity to present Egypt's case at the Paris Peace Conference.
• Zaghlul formed a delegation –al-wafd – to head to Paris, but the British authorities in Egypt arrested and exiled him to Malta.
• The exile of Zaghlul - "the uncrowned king of the peasants" unleashed fierce Egyptian anti-British sentiment, resulting in huge demonstrations and riots to be known as the 1919 Revolution. The British had failed to factor in Zaghlul's popularity with ordinary Egyptians.
• Zaghlul was gifted at communicating with ordinary Egyptians.
• He combined anti-British sentiment with the concept of the nation to form a nationalist movement. The nationalist movements had until then consisted mainly of army officers, lawyers and others. He managed to transform it into a popular movement, in which the Egyptian peasantry participated heavily. He also stressed Muslim-Christian unity.He managed to break class boundaries, turning the nationalist movement into a comprehensive, popular movement that combined all religious and social groups.
• Released after 800 Egyptian deaths in riots protesting his arrest, Zaghlul and the Wafd reached Paris and were disappointed that their calls for independence fell on deaf ears.
• The British kept up the pressure and re-arrested and exiled Zaghlul to the Seychelles in 1921.
• But Egyptian nationalism had become a formidable force. He was released a year later and by 1923, Britain ended its protectorate hold on Egypt.
•   In 1924, Zaghlul became the first popularly elected prime minister of Egypt. The death of Zaghlul did not close the floodgates that he had opened.

 

Some historians have called the 1919 Revolution the "unfinished revolution" because it failed at ending the British occupation; they believe it was completed by the 1952 Revolution, which succeeded in ousting the British and bringing about social, economic and political changes.

The Gulf War

The Gulf War between August 1990 and February 1991, was an international conflict that erupted after Iraq, under dictator Saddam Hussain, invaded neighbouring Kuwait, claiming it as its “19th province”. After Hussain defied UN warnings, the US and its allies forced Iraqi forces out of Kuwait.

1. On August 2, 1990, Iraq annexed Kuwait, its south-eastern neighbour 25 times smaller in size. Although Hussain claimed Kuwait to be a part of Iraq, he invaded the region so that Baghdad could cancel a massive debt that it owed Kuwait, as well as acquire Kuwait’s large oil reserves. Hussain also sought to link the annexation with the Palestinian conflict.
2. Immediately after, the United Nations Security Council strongly reprimanded Iraq and warned of military action if its forces did not retreat by January 15, 1991.
3. As Hussain refused to pay heed to the UN’s many warnings, a US-led coalition, consisting of 7 lakh troops from 35 countries assembled in Saudi Arabia — Iraq’s neighbour also threatened by Hussain’s adventures in the region.
4. After the January 15 deadline was flouted by Baghdad, coalition forces first launched Operation Desert Storm, which destroyed Iraq’s air defences, oil refineries, and key infrastructure. This was followed by Operation Desert Sabre, a ground offensive that went on to free Kuwait.
5. The war finally ended on February 28, 1991, when the US declared a ceasefire.

New Delhi had been one of the first powers to recognise the Baathist regime when it came to power, and Baghdad, in turn, had consistently maintained a pro-India stance, especially during the era when the rest of the region was seen to have gravitated towards Pakistan.

When the Gulf War started, India, which at the time was led by PM Chandra Shekhar, maintained its signature non-aligned stance. However, it rejected Baghdad’s demand for linking the hostilities that were unfolding then with the Palestinian conflict.

Between August 13 and October 20 of 1990, India evacuated over 1,75,000 of its nationals from war-torn Kuwait, the biggest such operation by the Indian government.

Africa Apartheid to Democracy

It refers to racial segregation based on law. This policy was adopted by South African White Regime in 1948. The apartheid regulations segregated South African population on basis of race so that domination of white race could be maintained.

South Africa was captured by Britain in 1795. The Vienna congress of 1815 recognised British colonial rule over South Africa. Till 1910 South Africa remained a British colony, thereafter it became independent. White rule was established in South Africa after independence. The blacks were given representation and right to participate in political affairs at local level.

Reasons

1. Policy of apartheid was in response and reaction to the increasing demand for South Africa. By the 1940s the blacks and browns had started demanding complete racial equality due to increased awakening.
2. Emergence of independent states in Asia- India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka etc greatly emboldened the South African blacks and browns to strive for independent political system with no racial discrimination.
3. Process of awakening among coloured people in South Africa can be traced back to struggle and efforts of Mahatama Gandhi there, which had now reached new heights.
4. Impact of world wars was also significant on South African coloured people as many soldiers from these sections fought in the war, coming in contact with liberal and progressive ideas.
5. Growing demands for racial equality terrified the whites in South Africa. They started fearing that their traditional privileges based on racial distinction might disappear. In 1948 elections were held in South Africa, which was won by the African National Party of Dr DF Malan. He promised to ensure white dominance in South Africa and introduced the policy of Apartheid.

Apartheid Regulations

• separate areas were earmarked for black residents known as Bantustan. A Pass Permit System was introduced according to which movement of Black citizens were monitored.
• separate buses were started for blacks.
• matrimonial and sexual relations between blacks and whites were prohibited.
• political representation enjoyed by blacks and browns were taken away and their participation in political activities wasn’t allowed.

Reaction Against Apartheid

1. policy if apartheid was inhuman and against fundamental rights and values of human beings. It was a blatant misuse of power by South African white regime.
2. the coloured people suffered immensely under Apartheid. They were deprived not only of their political rights but also of an opportunity to live a decent life. It was strongly opposed by South African coloured people.

Internal Reaction Against Apartheid

1. In 1957, African National Congress under Albert Luthuli started agitations and demonstrations against apartheid. The blacks were asked to boycott work. In 1955 All Black and Brown organisations came together and issued a ‘freedom charter’ demanding removal of apartheid.
2. 1957, African National Congress organised bus boycott which were introduced for blacks. In 1960 massive demonstrations took place at sharpville. The government’s decision to fire on the people which even killed some saw further anger from people.
3. Sharpville Incident radicalised anti apartheid struggles in South Africa. Nelson Mandela emerged as the main leader of African National Congress who was arrested from 1963 to 1990 for his protest against discrimination.

External Reactions

1. After Sharpville incident International pressure on South Africa increased to abandon apartheid.
2. 1960 British prime minister Harold McMilan visited cape town and advised the government of South Africa to abandon apartheid.
3. 1961 commonwealth condemned apartheid, South Africa left it in protest.
4. UN imposed economic sanctions on South Africa in 1960s.
5. 1970s and 80s internal and external pressure on South Africa to abandon apartheid increased significantly.
6. blacks faced intense economic crises during 1970s downfall. Till 1975 Angola & Mozambique attained independence and as a result equality among blacks and whites increased in Africa further.
7. 1986 commonwealth and USA imposed economic sanctions on USA.

Abandonment of Apartheid

1. 1979 apartheid regulations were gradually abandoned. They were given the right to form trade unions and go on strikes.
2. Till 1981 blacks were allowed to participate in elections for town councils. But were not given representation in the parliament.
3. In 1984 bicameral parliament was established one house was of blacks and other of whites.
4. 1985 matrimonial relations between blacks and whites were permitted
5. 1966 pass permit system was abolished
6. However, the partial withdrawal of apartheid provisions didn’t satisfy the aspirations of South African coloured people which led to further intensified struggles.
7. in 1989 FED Klerk became the president and decided to abandon apartheid. In 1990 nelson Mandela was released from prison. 1991 talks were began with whites and concluded by 1993. A new constitution was drafted based on democracy and racial equality.
8. 1994 democratic elections were held in which African National Party led by Nelson Mandela won majority.

The main features of apartheid

• Separation of blacks and whites:
• complete separation of blacks and whites as far as possible at all levels.
• In country areas blacks had to live in special reserves; in urban areas they had separate townships built at suitable distances from the white residential areas.
• If black township was too close to a 'white' area, the whole community was uprooted and 're-grouped' somewhere else.
• There were separate buses, coaches, trains, cafes, toilets, parks benches, hospitals, beaches, picnic areas, sports and even churches.
• Black children went to separate schools and were given a much inferior education.
• Complete separation was impossible:
• because over half the non-white population worked in white-owned mines, factories and other businesses.
• economy would have collapsed if all non-whites had been moved to reserves.
• every white household had at least two African servants.
• Racial classification and identity card:
• Every person was given a racial classification and an identity card.
• strict pass laws black Africans issued with passes if travelling to white areas. Otherwise all travelling was forbidden without police permission.
• Marriage and sexual relations: between whites and non-whites were forbidden. This was to preserve the purity of the white race. Police spied on anybody suspected of breaking the rules.
• Homeland system: government attempted to divide South Africa into a number of separate states, each of which was supposed to develop into a separate nation-state for a different ethnic group.
• Bantu Self-Government Act (1959) set up seven regions called Bantustans, based on the original African reserves. It was claimed that they would eventually move towards self-government.
• In 1969 it was announced that the first Bantustan, the Transkei, had become 'independent'. However, the outside world dismissed this with contempt since the South African government continued to control the Transkei's economy and foreign affairs.
• Bantustan areas covered only about 13 per cent of the country's total area which were vastly overcrowded and unable to support the black populations adequately.
• But the government ignored the protests and continued its policy; by 1980 two more African 'homelands' had received 'independence'.
• No political rights: their representation in parliament, which had been by white MPs, was abolished.

Opposition to apartheid inside South Africa

• Inside South Africa, opposition to the system was difficult. Anyone who objected - including whites - or broke the apartheid laws, was accused of being a communist and was severely punished under the Suppression of Communism Act.
• Africans were forbidden to strike, and their political party, the African National Congress (ANC), was helpless.
• In spite of this, protests did take place inside South Africa:
• Chief Albert Luthuli, the ANC leader, organized a protest campaign in which black Africans stopped work on certain days.
• In 1952 Africans attempted a systematic breach of the laws by entering shops and other places reserved for whites.
• In 1955 the ANC formed a coalition with Asian and coloured groups, and at a massive open-air meeting at Kliptown (near Johannesburg)& announce a freedom charter before police broke up the crowd
• declaring: 'South Africa belongs to all who live in it, black and white, and no government can claim authority unless it is based on the will of the people.' It demand:
• equality before law;
• freedom of assembly, movement, speech, religion and the press;
• the right to vote;
• right to work, with equal pay for equal work;
• 40-hour working week, a minimum wage and unemployment benefits;
• free medical care;
• free, compulsory and equal education.
• Opposition by Church leaders both black and white spoke against apartheid.
• 1957 bus boycott: Instead of paying a fare increase on the bus route from their township thousands of Africans walked to work and back for three month until fares were reduced.
• Sharpeville massacre: 1960 demonstration against the pass laws at Sharpeville, near Johannesburg. Police fired on the crowd, killing 67 Africans and wounding many more. After this 15 000 Africans were arrested and hundred of people were beaten by police
• This was an important turning point in the campaign: until then most or the protest had been non-violent; but this brutal treatment by the authorities convinced many black leaders that violence could only be met with violence.
• Spear of the Nation:
• A small action group of the ANC Nelson Mandela was a prominent member.
• organized a campaign of sabotaging strategic targets: 1961 bomb attacks in Johannesburg, Port Elizabeth and Durban.
• But the police soon clamped down, arresting most of the black leaders, including Mandela, who was sentenced to life imprisonment on Robben island.
• Mandela had joined the ANC and become a founding member of its Youth League.
• After the Afrikaner government of the National Party established apartheid in 1948, he rose to prominence in the ANC's 1952 Defiance Campaign, was appointed superintendent of the organisation's Transvaal chapter and presided over the 1955 Congress of the People.
• Working as a lawyer, he was repeatedly arrested for seditious activities and, with the ANC leadership, was unsuccessfully prosecuted in the Treason Trial from 1956 to 1961.
• Chief Luthuli still persevered with non-violent protests, autobiography Let My People Go, he was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize. He was killed in 1967.
• Discontent and protest increased again in the 1970s because the wage of Africans failed to keep pace with inflation.
• Protest against imposition of Afrikaans language:
• 1976 Transvaal authority announced that Afrikaans (the language spoken by whites of Dutch descent) to be used in black African school
• massive demonstrations took place near Johannesburg.
• Although many children and young people in the crowd, police opened fire, killing at least 200 black Africans.
• This time the protest did not die down; they spread over the whole country.
• Again, government responded with brutality: over the next six months a further 500 Africans were killed.

South East Asia Vietnam

Vietnam was an independent country till 1869, but was gradually colonised by France.

1. Beginning of 19th century nationalist movement commenced in Vietnam under leadership of Ho Chi Minh
2. Entry of Japan in second world war the geopolitical scene in Vietnam was transformed. French escaped from Vietnam leaving natives at mercy of Japan. Japanese forces exploitation Vietnamese to the maximum possible extent as a result of which nationalist struggle continued to gain strength. More than 2 million Vietnamese lost their lives due to severe famines in 1945.
3. Japan surrendered in august 1945, Vietnam was liberated. Ho Chi Minh declared independence, however, soon a new conflict emerged.

Thirty Years War Vietnam

1. It was triggered by French colonial ambitions. In 1946 after the Second World War when Japan withdrew from Vietnam soon French forces reestablished colonial rule. This conflict continued till 1954 when it was brought to an end by Geneva accords.
2. The apprehension that Vietnam would fall into lap of communism under leadership of communist leader like Ho Chi Minh pushed USA into the conflict.
3. Geneva accords provided for temporary peace . Vietnam was divided into 2 parts- North Vietnam under leadership of Ho Chi Minh and South Vietnam under puppet emperor Baodai. After 300 days a free election was to be held to decide the political future. It was evident that if elections were to happen Viet Min Party of Ho Chi Minh would win.
4. USA initially supported south Vietnam but as the challenge increased, it pushed itself into a ground combat in Vietnam. This continued till 1973 when USA withdrew from Vietnam as per Paris peace.
5. The withdrawal of USA left locals in conflict. Vietminh led by Ho Chi Minh captured Saigon in April 1975 and in 1976 Socialist Republic of Vietnam was proclaimed.

Vietnam

• 30 years war 1945 to 1975
• 1945 to 54 against France
• 1954 to 1975 against USA

• 20th century’s longest and bloodiest war of liberation for 30 years.
• second half of 19th century France conquered Laos, Cambodia, & Vietnam creating union of Indochina.
• Japan’s victory over Russia in 1905 enhanced the self esteem of Vietnamese against colonial powers. By the early 20th century many intellectuals began to question subordination of Vietnam to France.
• In 1912 Phan Bai Chan founded Association for restoration of Vietnam to work for liberation of Vietnam from French control. It advocated use of violent methods such as assassination of French officials and organising armed resistance so as to arouse public opinion against France.
• 1920s and 30s many Vietnamese leaders were in contact with communists in China and Europe. Among them Ho Chi Minh was to play an important role in Vietnamese liberation struggle in years to come. He became a member of the French Communist party and was also part of the delegation which presented the Vietnamese case at the Paris peace conference 1919.
• In Vietnam period of late 1920s was of increased nationalist activity and working class unrest. In 1928 & 29 there was a wave of strikes in petroleum, cement, textile, railway and other industries.
• 1930 Indochina Communist Party at Hongkong by Ho Chi Minh. However after a rebellion in Amman he was sentenced to death in absentia.
• However by 1941 Japan conquered Vietnam and ruled the country under Vichy Government. But with Japanese defeat in the 2nd world war Japan was forced to declare Vietnam as a liberated country. A monarchy was established with emperor Baodai. He was a puppet ruler under control of French.
• During the war Ho Chi Minh and other nationalists returned to Vietnam. In 1941 they organise Vietminh , The league for the independence of Vietnam. In 1945 there was a severe famine still Japanese continued to take away rice from Vietnam. The organisation came forward to help people and arranged a relief measures, which increased their popularity among people. 
• When the Japanese surrendered in August 1945, they allowed Vietminh And other nationalist leaders and groups to take over public buildings, so as to cause more trouble to the French.
• On 2 September 1945 Ho Chi Minh declared Vietnam independent, called the Democratic Republic of Vietnam. Ho Chi Minh expected support from United States but instead the US decided to help the French in restoring their rule in Indochina.
• After the Second World War the French decided to re-establish their control over their empire in Indo China and Africa. Potsdam conference it was decided that until the French army would be reconstructed Vietnam would be divided into two zones. During 1946 French carried out negotiations with the Vietminh with a view to establish a federation of Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia which would form the French union. These efforts did not succeed and the Vietminh shifted to the villages to wage gorilla war.
• In November 1946 French invaded northern Vietnam by bombarding Haiphong, war from 1946 to 1954. It was a colonial war for the army a French Republic and the war of liberation for the Vietnamese led by Ho Chi Minh. The French for successful and in 1948 the reinstalled Baodai as the nominal head of the state of Vietnam. Despite the successes of France the Ho Chi Minh party Vietminh did not give up.
• In 1950 both Moscow and Beijing recognised the Democratic Republic of Vietnam as the sole legitimate government. Domino theory Washington saw Vietnam at the first Domino whose fall could mean the establishment of Communist states from Singapore to Philippines. USA has decided to intervene in Vietnam conflict by helping France in maintaining its hold over Vietnam. In 1950 USA officially recognised Baodai as the Emperor of Vietnam as well as the arrangement made by French.
• France underestimated the skill, resourcefulness and determination of the Vietnamese to succeed. For the Vietnamese it was a war of liberation. The French attempted to strengthen its military position by building an army camp at Dienbienphu in northern Vietnam.
• The issue of Vietnam was presented at a conference in front of representatives from nine states. In May 1954 the Vietminh resorted to a brilliant manoeuver and demonstrated the ingenuity of the Vietnamese and the intensity of commitment to their cause. The Vietnamese played havoc with the French defence. The French garrison at Dienbienphu surrendered on 7 May 1954.
• Vietnam was partitioned into 2 halves. In North the Democratic Republic of Vietnam and in South Baodai’s Regime continued. The USA did not sign the records but pledged to bide by them. Washington decided that elections should not be held in Vietnam.
• A struggle commenced between USA and its allies on the one side and Vietnamese people on the other. For them it was now a war of resistance against America. The Ho Chi Minh party controlled large areas in southern Vietnam also. America decided to destroy their influence. In 1960 various nationalist groups in southern Vietnam established an organisation called the national liberation front(NLF) to fight the Republic of Vietnam. As the war with America escalated northern Vietnamese increasingly provided military staff. The NLF got widespread support in urban and rural areas and started gorilla campaigns in South targeting unpopular officials and government buildings. As a struggle intensified US military involvement increased.
• John Kennedy became the President of America in 1961. His government felt the need to get rid of Diem. A period of coups and counter coups ensued . In August 1964 in the Gulf of Tonkin Washington claimed that America troops had been attacked by northern Vietnamese forces. In March 1965 President Johnson sent troops and launch operation rolling thunder, aerial bombardment of northern Vietnam.
• The North Vietnamese government sent regular army troops to southern Vietnam to conduct guerrilla and conventional military operations. To ensure an inert supply to the NLF a tunnel was built and was called Ho Chi Minh Trail. In January 1968 the NLF organised general apprising in southern Vietnam known as Tet offensive. The angle of attack to nearly all city’s and villages. US Embassy was attacked and was shown live on TV across the United States.
• When 1969 the issue was to get out of Vietnam without loss of credibility. In March 1973 last American troops left Vietnam. In 1975 northern vietnamese launched a general offensive and On 2 July 1973 northern and southern Vietnam were merged to form a single nation called the Socialist Republic of Vietnam.
• The Vietnamese struggle was not accidental. US military was losing ground day after day, month after month and year after year. But it could not make the Vietnamese abandon their dreams. The exit of America did not mean the end of all problems for Vietnam but the Vietnamese acquired tremendous self-confidence.