World After World war 2

Cold War

The cold war timeline

1947 - US president H. Truman's doctrine on containment of communism
1947-52 - Marshall Plan US Aid for reconstruction of Western Europe
1948-49 - Berlin Blockade by USSR and airlift of supplies to West Berlin
1950-53 Korean war
1954 Defeat of French by Vietnamese at Dien Bein phu

Signing Geneva Accords
Div of Vietnam along 17th parallel
Formation of SEATO

1954-75 American Intervention in Vietnam
1955 signing Baghdad pact later CENTO
1956 Soviet intervention in Hungary
1961 US sponsored Bay Of Pigs invasion of Cuba

Const of Berlin Wall

1962 Cuban Missile crisis
1965 American Intervention in Dominican Rep
1968 Soviet intervention in Czechoslovakia
1972 US President Richard Nixon's visit to China
1978-89 Vietnamese intervention in Cambodia
1979-89 Soviet intervention in Afghanistan
1985 Gorbachev becomes President of USSR reform started
1989 Fall of Berlin wall mass protest against govt in eastern europe
1990 Unification of Germany
1991 Disintegration of Soviet Union End of Cold war era

The term Cold War was used for the first time by British writer George Orwell in October 1945 in context of difference and tension between capitalists and communists ideological bloc. This was further explained in geo-political sense by Bernard Baruch advisor to American president HS Truman.

World which emerged after the Second World War was characterised by emergence of 2 superpowers United States of America and Union of Soviet Socialist Republics USSR. The 2 fought together on the allied side during the Second World War but the friends of war couldn’t remain friends after it. As the period after Second World War witnessed constant confrontation between the 2 and was called as Cold War.

It was a war of ideologies due to ideological differences between the superpowers. It was essentially a conflict of geopolitical interest as both powers were pursuing geopolitical interests at cost of each other. It was fought not in battlefields but through diplomats and secret services by creating alliances, counter alliances. It was more of a psychological war fought in convincing the efficacy of own ideology and disregarding that of the other- propaganda warfare. Conflict in sports ground, space, science and cultural arenas etc.
the world lived under a constant shadow of global nuclear war and this was hence called Cold War

soviet writer considered capitalism and imperialism as the responsible factors for global disturbance and hence the cold war
traditionalists argue that after Second World War USA had followed a passive policy however when USSR started expanding influence of communism by installing communist regimes in Eastern Europe in direct conflict with the Yalta Agreement USA was forced to provide aid to countries under Marshall agreement
however some argue that increased alienation and isolation of USSR pushed it towards extremist measures
Post Colonial Discourse scholars argue that Cold War system was such that policy makers at Moscow and Washington mobilised their own populations to support harsh and brutal measures directed against victims of their aggressive intent

Albert Carry Cold War was a result of change in balance of power equations.

Phases of Cold War

Phase 1- 1946-50

Phase 2- 1950-53

Phase 3- 1953-57

Phase 4- 1957-62

2 trends - Co-existence and Bellicosity
cuban missile crisis

Phase 5-1962-69

arms race stopped - Partial Test Ban treaty 1963; Nuclear Non proliferation treaty 1968
SALT 1 treaty 1962

Phase 6- 1969-78

1969-78 period of deentente - sino-soviet conflict
Helinski Agreement 1972 both blocs recognised existing frontiers and promised not to cross them
indo pak war 1971
upheavals in Ethiopia and Angola

Phase 7-1979-87

new Cold War
soviet occupation of Afghanistan
1979 USA president Reagan- Star War Program
strategic defence initiative
USA intervention in Grenada, 1983; Libya 1986
reagan supported rebels in Nicaragua and in Latin America propagated his doctrine

Phase 8 -1987-91

Features of Cold War

no imminent danger of world war in the Cold War. The governments of both superpowers accepted the global distribution of force at the end of Second World War which amounted to a highly uneven but essentially unchallenged balance of power.
USSR exercised dominance over the eastern part of world - zone occupied by the red army and other communist armed forces and the USA in the western world. Both powers didn’t use military force to extend their control over each other’s area of influence.
Europe boundaries were drawn in 1943-45 when USSR accepted that Berlin was a western enclave inside German territory. USSR was able to make use of its vast size and successfully established stronghold of communism from Pacific Ocean to the middle of Germany
It was a power struggle between the capitalist bloc led by America and the communist bloc led by USSR. To each other, the other seemed to possess hegemonic ambitions and was therefore perceived as a threat. The conflict took place at multiple levels - ideological, economical, scientific, cultural, arms race, proxy war and limited military conflicts
in the name of defending free people from soviet threat USA invaded Korea, Cuba, Indo China and made moves to overthrow govt in Latin American countries and Iran. Similarly Soviet Union sent tanks in east Berlin, Hungary, Czechoslovakia and Afghanistan for defending socialism & preventing USA from extending its influence.
Cold war emergence of US USSR but also understanding the extent of devastation created by atomic bombs which is too costly for any country to bear. No pol gains justify dest of their society by nuclear war . By nuclear war both sides would be harmed immensely making impossible to determine winner after the devastation . This known as logic of deterrence where both sides have capacity to retaliate against an attack and cause so much damage destruction that neither can afford to initiate war. Thus cold war inspite being an intense form of rivalry btw great powers remained cold and not hot or shooting war. Deterrence prevented war but not rivalry btw powers.
Smaller states imp to be incorporated in power blocks for

Vital resources such as oil and minerals
Territory frm where suprpwr cud launch weapons and troops
Location frm where they cud spy on each other
Economic support as many small allies together could help lay for military expenses
Ideological reasons showing no. of countries concurring to ideology of superpowers leading to winning war of idea btw liberal democracy ans capitalism vs communism and socialism

Causes

Power Politics after WW 2

defeat of Germany and Japan created a vacuum in Asia and Europe. After the war USA began to disarm and disengage from Europe, but had to take much active role in 1947 as Western European countries insisted to contain Russia’s expansionism
1946 Iron curtain speech by Winston Churchill at Fulton college Missouri in response to Stalin’s speech. Churchill argued that no lasting peace would be possible in the world without the defeat of communism. This speech further intensified hostilities between capitalism and communism. Churchill emphasised that an iron curtain had been drawn in the world from Stettin in Baltic Sea to Trieste in Adriatic Sea with the areas west of it under capitalism world and right to it under communist influence of USSR
1947 USA under Truman doctrine abandoned the policy of isolation in international matters and decided to support democratic regimes fighting against communism. Under Marshall plan or European recovery plan aid of 13 billion dollars was provided to Western European nations to rebuild after world war 2. It was based on the premise that communism was less likely to succeed in prosperous societies . As a result Western European countries recovered rapidly from after effects of war while the Eastern European nations were trapped in deep economic crises.

Capitalism v/S communism as state ideology

conflicting views on how to organise societies, economies and political system
Americans believed in a superior society represented by principles such as liberty, democracy, free enterprise, peace and cooperation between nations and that they had a special mission to spread these values. It also believed that communism was a monolithic political entity controlled from Moscow and USSR was trying to impose socialism in weaker countries
USSR held that communism represented ‘people’s democracy’. Western countries were agencies of capitalism which was aggressive. Not only was USSR’s control est over eastern countries , the communist ideology and sympathy for USSR were spreading persistently. Membership of Communist parties began to grow in western countries which was a threat to capitalism

Domination in world politics

USA had developed economically and militarily as it experienced wartime boom enabling it to come out of the Great Depression. Thus it wanted to create a peaceful and benign hegemony based on the same.
however, challenged by rival system presented by USSR. It was able to escape the effects of Great Depression altogether. Further, the victory in war ensured it had gains and suffered less damage.

Arms race triggered by nuclear arms

Atomic bomb attacks in Japan were seen by USSR as an indication of power by USA as Stalin was not aware of existence of such bombs and wasn’t consulted till the last minute before dropping them. He believed Japan was just a scapegoat and the real target was USSR.
USSR successfully tested nuclear arms in 1949 which created tension and pushed USA to increase its focus on creation of nuclear arms leading to a nuclear arms race
by end of 1955 both sides had fully functional thermonuclear bombs as well as long range bombs.
but during Cold War their power of destruction created logic of mutually assured destruction. Their possession itself reinforced mistrust and further changes dimension of war
world lived under constant fear of a nuclear war
1968 USA and USSR signed Nuclear Non Proliferation treaty / Intermediate Range Nuclear non proliferation treaty

Rise of communism

1945-47 USSR successfully est communist regimes in Poland, Hungary, Bulgaria, Romania, Albania by rigging elections, eliminating political opponents or expelling non communist ministers
soviet troops were stationed in these countries
appointment in police and secret services was controlled by Russian army
all parties except communist party were dissolved
communist leaders of these countries were made dependent on USSR which extended power, privileges and financial advantages
1948 Czechoslovakia was forcefully brought under USSR by a coup
economies of these countries were subordinated to soviet economy by creating a series of joint ventures and by imposition of soviet style 5 year plans to promote heavy industry
agriculture was partially collectivised.
Security services and army were connected with Soviet Union.
September 1947 Stalin est Cominform to draw together communist parties of various countries. Delegations from communist parties of Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Poland, Romania, Yugoslavia all’s of France and Germany attended it.
it was expected that all Eastern European countries would trade with cominform members and all contacts with non communist members were discouraged. When Yugoslavia objected it was dismissed from Cominform in 1948
1949 economic aid was provided to Eastern European countries under the Molotov Plan.

British and French Insecurities

Washington had no immediate interest in Eastern Europe. USA assumed the leadership role of west at insistence of Britain and France who were sceptical of rising power of USSR
Russia continued its occupation of Iran and put pressure on Turkey for leasing it a base in strait of Bosphorus and Dardanelles, but it was made to withdraw due to USA pressure. USA placed its naval ships permanently in eastern Mediterranean.
civil war in Greece between govt and communist former supported by Britain and the latter by Yugoslavia, Albania, Bulgaria. When Britain decided to withdraw from the conflict USA moved in.
1946 American president Truman put forward the Domino Theory and advocated action to prevent communists from assuming power in Turkey and Greece, otherwise he believed they would knock over the neighbouring countries like a line of dominoes.
In March 1947 Truman put forward a demand for 400 million dollar economic aid to Greece to prevent its fall in communist sphere.
In June 1947 USA announced the Marshall plan for helping in economic recovery of Europe and to enable economy of America to recover did not want USSR to exert its influence in countries beyond the iron curtain

Berlin blockade

1st major confrontation of the Cold War over Berlin in 1948-49. Berlin was administered jointly by the 4 victor powers of world war 2.
1948 USA, Britain and France introduced a common currency in their zone of influence cutting them off from the zone under Russian influence
Russia reacted by imposing a blockade on movement of goods and food by rail or road to West Berlin. Postal services were also halted.
USA however, decided not to give into the pressure and hence, decided to supply services to West Berlin via air corridors, which were joined by British and French aircrafts.
They were on verge of a war but none of them crossed the line. Americans did not use the land route and USSR did not shoot down their airplanes.
efforts to create a new German state in western zone were intensified. In May 1949 Federal Republic of Germany was formed by uniting 3 western zones of USA, Britain and France. But it was not a sovereign state as allied high command exercised wide control over economic and foreign policy and it was to remain demilitarised. The soviet zone of Influence was created into German Democratic Republic which was under control of Moscow.

NATO V/S Warsaw Pact

april 1949 North a Atlantic Treaty Organisation
members- USA, Canada, Britain, Holland, Belgium, Luxembourg, Denmark, Italy, Norway, Portugal and Eire
objective: attack on any one member would be treated as an attack on all
send a message to USSR that USA was determined to oppose any further expansion of soviet influence. Germany became its member in 1955
1955 Baghdad Pact was signed between Iran and turkey to keep USSR out of the Middle East. It was later joined by Britain, Pakistan, Iran. USA joined in 1958. Iraq withdrew in 1959 and now the pact was known as CENTO- Central Treaty Organisation
may 1955 USSR in retaliation formed the Warsaw Pact with 7 communist countries of Europe which agreed to set up a unified military command with headquarters at Moscow.

Death of Stalin 1953

Nikita Khrushchev assumed control
signed agreement on Korean issue
treaty in 1955 for united and neutral Austria
occupying troops were withdrawn from Finland, Manchuria
Establishment of diplomatic relations with Yugoslavia
revolts in eastern German areas were crushed brutally
began an era of internal reform in USSR - release of prisoners, restoration of reputation etc

Space competition

late 1957 USSR launched the 1st inter continental ballistic missile
put satellite Sputnik in space
competition by USA to place its own satellite

Global Cold War

China

Long civil war in China between nationalists supported by USA and communists came to an end with victory of the latter
1st October 1949 people’s republic of China was est. Chinese revolution was as much a triumph of nationalism as it was for communism.
Mao Zedong the leader of CPC sought to est friendly relations with Moscow and hence travelled all the way by train. USSR and China signed the Treaty of Friendship, Alliance and Mutual Assistance.
USSR agreed to provide big loans on easy terms and subsequently collaborated in number of spheres like air services, oil metals etc
American saw this as a major contributor to shift in balance of power and emergence of the so called Red Tide which it anticipated to sweep across Asia. This was also a threat to security of Japan which by now was a key American ally.
Washington refused to recognise the rise of CPC in China as legitimate and continued to recognise govt of Chiang Kai Shaikh in Taiwan as the legitimate China govt. USA further exerted pressure on its allies to support its anti China policy

National Security Council paper no. 68 NSC 68 April 1950 top secret military document by the American govt

base on the assumption that USSR and its clients posed a major military threat to USA and rest of the world
USA need to build its army massively and further extended its aid to Indonesia, Thailand, Burma, French Indo China
china retaliated by increasing its assistance to Democratic republic of Vietnam
nature of Cold War confrontation was now changing as it now spread beyond Europe to south east Asia

1950 onwards a period of proxy wars began

Korean War 1950-53

1st hot war of Cold War period in Korea
not only were USA, China and USSR were involved in the war but soldiers from all over world fought here
Korea had been annexed by Japan in 1910
after the 2nd world war with defeat of Japan allied powers decided to make Korea independent
it was divided into 2 zones between USA and USSR
Russia fostered a strong communist regime in its zone of influence
efforts by USA to est a unified Korea yielded no results
in the 1948 elections in the north National Communist Govt DR of Korea was established while in South Republic of Korea was est.
USA and USSR withdrew their armies from Korea. At this time USA was more involved in Europe and hence didn’t bother much about Korea
25th June 1950 North Korea invaded South Korea and within a week,North Korean army virtually overran the whole Korean Peninsula
In retaliation USA put a resolution in front of the UNSC on that very day calling for withdrawal of army from South Korea. USSR was boycotting the UNSC at this time
UNSC asked all members to send troops to South Korea to repel North Korean invasion now it turned into an American war
by end September American troops crossed the border and moved northwards occupying capital Pyongyang and then had reached the Chinese border.
1 October Kim 2 Sung appealed to Stalin for help who instead asked Chinese pm Mao Zedong to send troops disguised as volunteers. A prolonged war of attrition was conducted
July 1951 negotiations for an armistice began
communists accused USA of conducting germ warfare
finally on 27th July 1953 the war came to an end with both declaring ceasefire and Korean Peninsula divided along the 38th parallel
for the world the war ended in a draw but for Koreans it it was a disaster
they gained nothing from the war which was futile and savage total war
a communist state or a democratic state couldn’t be established across whole of Korean Peninsula
stalin refused to share costs of war with China
usa stood against the rise of communist states with great determination

Cuban Missile Crisis 1960-1962

1960 Cuba adopted the nationalist path for growth, but when this was disallowed by USA it turned to communism
Fidel Castro came to power in 1959
to strengthen the country’s economy and improve condition of people his govt took over agricultural land and nationalised banks and businesses which adversely affected American companies
May 1960 Castro est diplomatic relations with USSR
Cuba Soviet ally received diplomatic and financial aid
USA retaliated by imposing economic sanctions on Cuba and also started attempts to overthrow Cuba
however, USA had no support from Cuban public. A small Cuban airforce and army outgunned and overpowered US army resulting in a big humiliation
cuban govt apprehended military action from USA
1962 USSR installed weapons and nuclear missiles in Cuba in extreme secrecy which was spotted by USA sky planes later
America knew of it 3 weeks later
their stationing as well as the secrecy in the process shook the Americans and the mood at Washington became hawkish
October 24th many soviet vessels were headed towards Cuba which Washington didn’t allow and launched a naval blockade
American aircraft was shot by anti aircraft fire and Cuban govt took responsibility
2 countries were on brink of war. However, USSR chose to avoid direct confrontation
khrushchev announced withdrawal of missiles from Cuban soil by USSR if USA decided to not invade Cuba and remove its missiles from turkey which was agreed

Vietnam

continued war of liberation from France
after the victory of 1954 attempted to est a united Vietnam were threatened by western bloc which was finally est by long drawn out struggle in 1975

Intervention in colonies - Africa & Asia in countries fighting wars of independence

USSR and China believed that anti imperial movements in colonies would result in their moving into the communist fold and the Cold War was extended to colonial empires in Asia, Africa, Latin America
by 1970s countries in South east Asia and many in Africa had become independent
Africa internal struggles for power continued and in these USSR and China intervened. USA intervened to prevent communists from gaining a stronghold and thus Africa became a theatre of Cold War
USSR wanted to est ports to keep track of ship movements in the regions which was possible in Mozambique, Angola and Ethiopia
it also wanted to extend Africa into its market place
it supported popular movement for liberation in Angola
it also patronised the states near Horn of Africa by signing Treaty of Friendship with Somalia in 1974
it supported Ethiopia in its strife with Somalia
china also became active in Africa

Arab Israel Conflict

Cold War acquired a middle eastern axis
scene of 3 rivalries-

Arab-Israel conflict
conflict between Arab nations
super power conflict

1964 Arab league sponsored est of Palestine Liberation Front which carried low intensity warfare thereafter. In this USA supported Israel while USSR supported Arab states. The superpowers didn’t control the confrontation directly. The conflict was mostly confined to border raids and reprisals etc
October 1974 war between Israel and Syria, Jordan& Iraq
march 1979 agreement was signed with Washington under which Israel vacated Sinai peninsula but did not return golan heights to Syria

War in Asia

1980s was period of prolonged wars in central and Western Asia leading to revival of confrontationist attitude between the 2 superpowers
1979 USSR invaded Afghanistan and occupied Kabul. USA announced that it wouldn’t remain indifferent to the fate of Afghanistan. By late 1980s war in Afghanistan was becoming more and more expensive for USSR. The army was making little progress. With USA deciding to confront USSR in Afghanistan
UNGA passed a resolution condemning this aggressive act of USSR leading to a period of acute tension and sharp confrontation
1985 Mikhael Gobrachev assumed leadership of USSR
USSR had significant domination via satellite states in Eastern Europe, Cuba, Vietnam, Mongolia, North Korea. NAM nations were favourably inclined towards USSR.
however it was facing one of the biggest political crisis internally along with economic crises. This ultimately led to death of USSR with the Russia and other members declaring independence from it. It was also facing opposition to its hegemony from Eastern European nations. As a result of bureaucratic control, inefficiency and corruption
Policies of Glasnost and Perestroika adopted by Gobrachev which aimed and revitalising and modernising USSR instead marked a major reason for its downfall.

Other International affairs

1961 Albania withdrew from the Warsaw Pact and increasing opposition was witnessed within USSR.
1965 there was open opposition in Ukraine and Armenia
relations between USSR and China were deteriorating which witnessed clashes in 1969 causing a split between the 2 greatest communist powers
Early 1970S fissures were visible in policies of USSR regarding Indian subcontinent. This resulted in India signing Indo Soviet Treaty of peace, Friendship and Cooperation
by the end 1970s it was clear that neither side wanted to give up
1990 communism had come to an end in Poland, democracy was est in Hungary. Similar protests surfaced in Bulgaria, Romania, Czechoslovakia
crises within the Soviet Union March 1990 Lithuania and then Estonia declared independence from the Soviet Union. Soon Soviet Union cut off oil supply to Lithuania forcing it to suspend independence. But by June Russian republic the largest part of USSR declared independence followed by similar declaration from Uzbekistan, Moldova, Ukraine, Belarus
boris yeltin was declared president of Russian republic. He mounted a tank outside the Russian parliament urging the citizens to resist coup of communist party leaders. In august he announced suspension of all activities of Russian communist party which organised the coup. Gobrachev resigned the next day as secretary of communist party of Soviet Union and later as president of Soviet Union. Yelstin moved in as president of Russia & by 31st December Soviet Union ceased to exist.
germany was unified on October 3rd 1990 this finally marked end of Cold War

Arenas of Cold war - Cuban Missile Crisis, Korea War 1950 to 53, Berlin 1958 to 62, Congo 1960s

Crisis widening often with none of the parties backing down
countries out of power alliances the Non Aligned Countries played a crucial role in reducing cold war conflict and averting some grave crisis.
Nehru mediated btw 2 Korea's
UN Secretary Gen imp role in Congo crisis
But since fear of war didn't eliminate completely the 2 powers kept on arming themselves leading to arms race

Division of Europe was a product of the basic change in power equation after the war giving birth to cold war era. The division of Europe into western and eastern part was visible in various aspects like nature of political system, model of economic development, military alliance and foreign policy etc.

Factors behind the division of Europe:

US and USSR emerged as superpowers. The new political outlook of US & USSR stood for enlargement of power and maintenance of position of advantage.
Europe split into two over the American Marshall Plan to promote recovery in Europe.

The nations of western Europe gladly made use of American aid,
but the USSR refused to allow the countries of eastern Europe to accept it, for fear that their own control over the area would be undermined.
This success of Marshall plan made possible isolation of Western Europe and brought about division of Europe.

From 1947 onwards the two parts of Europe developed separately, kept apart by Joseph Stalin's 'iron curtain'.

The states of western Europe recovered surprisingly quickly from the effects of the war, thanks to a combination of American aid, an increase in the world demand for European products, rapid technological advances and careful planning by governments.

Some moves took place towards unity, including the setting up of NATO and the Council of Europe (both in 1949), and the European Economic Community (EEC) in 1957.

The communist states of eastern Europe moved towards a sort of economic and political unity with the introduction of the Molotov Plan (1947), the formation of the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (COMECON) in 1949 and the Warsaw Pact (1955). The eastern Europe was far behind the western counterpart in terms of prosperity.

In countries in Western Europe there were people who wanted more unity as they believed that it was the best way to recover from the ravages of the war and to avoid the future war.
The main difference between unity in Eastern Europe and that of the west was that the countries of Eastern Europe was forced into it by USSR whereas unity among Western Europe was voluntarily.

Basic elements of division:

Western Europe was more prosperous than Eastern Europe.
Politically Western Europe had mostly democratic system while Eastern Europe had mostly communist system under influence of USSR.
Economically, Western Europe had mainly market based economy while in Eastern Europe it was command economy controlled by the state.
Along with USA the Western Europe was determined to policy of containment of communism while the eastern part was devoted to communism under leadership of USSR.

When the eastern countries like Poland and Czechs went too far from the Russian design of communism. They were invaded by the Russian troops.

The division was visible in their foreign policy as Western Europe sided with USA in the global platforms while communist countries of Eastern Europe was always sided with Russia.

Was division of Europe inevitable:

Policy of containment was to counterbalance advances of communism but still division was not inevitable.
Policy of containment found concrete expression in Marshal Plan

turned out to be a success and it made possible isolation of Western Europe and brought about division of Europe.It brought about certain significant economic progress to Western Europe.

Western Europe looking to US in order to counterbalance communist menace. US -Western Europe coalition had a strong cementing factor i.e. the communist threat kept them united and till this unity survived, division could get sustenance. However the unity among the Eastern and Western Europe was not without internal disagreement as reflected in some events.
Within Western Europe:

Britain dividing not to join EEC, changed it's mind in 1961, the French vetoed it's entry. It was only in 1972, that French finally agreed to British membership.
During Suez canal crisis the US was opposed to the British and French action.
There were also disagreements within EC about problems like Common Agricultural Policy and the sovereignty of the individual states.

Within Eastern Europe: Moscow felt that it had to clamp down on any leader or movement which seemed to threaten the solidarity of the communist bloc. e.g.
Conflict between Tito (a popular communist leader of Yugoslavia) and Stalin related to which brand of communism to be followed in Yugoslavia to led to expulsion of Yugoslavia from Cominform and and cutting off economic aid. But Yugoslavia under Tito continued to follow more decentralized form communism and also trading with the west and receiving aid from IMF.

When leaders of any states attempted to follow independent policies, Stalin arranged the their arrests. e.g.arrest of foreign minister of Hungary, Prime minster of Bulgaria was arrested and executed.
The Crisis of Poland (June 1956) caused by strikes by the workers due to poor living condition and anti-Soviet feelings led to arrival of Russian troops near Warsaw. Later, it ended only when a compromise was reached with the leader Gomulka.

Hungarian revolution (1956):

resentment against brutal and repressive communist regime and poor living condition. Khrushchev's speech and events at Poland encouraged the Hungarians to resist their government. The current government were overthrown and a more moderate communist leader, Nagy, became Prime minister. Nagy talked about withdrawing Hungary from Warsaw pact.
Russian tanks moved in and fighting lasted two weeks before Russian brought country under control. Nagy was executed.
The Crisis of Czechoslovakia(1968) was another event when Russia used military intervention to stop a country for straying too far from the accepted communist line.

Finally, this division of Europe ended with the collapse of communism and disintegration of USSR in 1991.

“The political changes in the USSR influenced the events in Eastern Europe during the closing decades of the 20th Century.”

It became apparent to the Soviets that oil and gas subsidies, along with the cost of maintaining massive troops levels, represented a substantial economic drain. The Soviets officially declared that they would no longer intervene in the affairs of allied states in Central and Eastern Europe. The Soviet alliance system was on the brink of collapse, and, deprived of Soviet military support, the Communist leaders of the Warsaw Pact states were losing power.

The Soviet Union was a federal state composed of 15 radically different republics. Across the nation there were dozens of ethnicity, languages, and cultures. The republics had been kept under tight control, but Gorbachev's liberalizing reforms of perestroika (“restructuring”) and glasnost (“openness”) (to bring long term changes in the administration and the stagnant economy) encouraged them to hope for more powers and more independence from Moscow. Gorbachev himself seemed sympathetic, provided that the Communist Party of the Soviet Union remained in overall control. However, once started, demands got out of hand.

In eastern Europe in the period August 1988 to December 1991 rising tide of popular opposition and mass demonstrations. The 1989 revolutionary wave swept across Central and Eastern Europe peacefully overthrew all the Soviet-style communist states.

Began in Poland in August 1988 when the 'Solidarity' trade union organized huge anti-government strikes.

forced the government to allow free elections, in which the communists were heavily defeated (June 1989).
Revolutionary protests rapidly spread to all the other Russian satellite states.

Hungary was the next to allow free elections, in which the communists again suffered defeat.
Czechoslovakia, Bulgaria and Romania had thrown out their communist governments by the end of 1989, and multi-party elections were held in Yugoslavia in 1990 and in Albania in the spring of 1991.

Romania was the only Eastern Bloc country whose people overthrew its Communist regime violently.

East Germany, communist leader Eric Honecker wanted to disperse the demonstrations by force, but he was overruled by his colleagues; by the end of 1989 the communist government had resigned.

Soon the Berlin Wall was breached, and, most astonishing of all, in the summer of 1990, Germany was re-united.

By the end of December 1991, the USSR itself had split up into separate republics and Gorbachev had resigned. Communist rule in Russia was over after 74 years.
The most immediate result was that the former USSR and its allies were no longer seen by the West as the 'enemy'. In November 1990 the countries of NATO and the Warsaw Pact signed a treaty agreeing that they were 'no longer adversaries', and that none of their weapons would ever be used except in self-defence.
Many Eastern European countries joined NATO and European Union and adopted capitalism.
Restructuring the economy left millions unemployed. The capitalist reforms culminated in a recession in the early 1990s New conflicts soon arose
Nationalism, which had been suppressed by communism, soon re-emerged in some of the former states of the USSR and elsewhere in Eastern Europe. Sometimes disputes were settled peacefully, for example in Czechoslovakia, where Slovak nationalists insisted on breaking away to form a separate state of Slovakia.
However, war broke out in many cases.

Yugoslavia broke up into five separate states - Serbia (with Montenegro), Bosnia-Herzegovina, Croatia, Slovenia and Macedonia.

Soon a complex civil war broke out in which Serbia tried to grab as much territory as possible from Croatia.
Bosnia, Serbs, Croats and Muslims fought each other in an attempt to set up states of their own.

So at a time when the states of western Europe were moving into closer union with the European Community, those of eastern Europe were breaking up into even smaller national units.

Detente During Cold War

Détente is the name given to a period of improved relations during Cold War between the United States and the Soviet Union.
By the 1970s both sides had become interested in accommodations to create a more stable and predictable international system period of 1962-1979.
As the nuclear arsenals built up, both sides became increasingly fearful of a catastrophic nuclear war in which there could be no real winner. Both sides were sickened by the horrors of Vietnam. In addition, countries had their own individual motives for wanting detente.
Key achievements in détente (1960s-1970s):

1968 Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty: powers with nuclear weapons agreed not to give any other countries nuclear technology.
1971 The US table tennis team played in China.
1971 The US dropped its veto and allowed China to join the United Nations.
1972 The US President Nixon visited China.
1972 Russia and America signed the SALT 1 Treaty (Strategic Arms Limitation Talks) agreeing to limit their anti-ballistic missiles and bombers.
1975 The Helsinki Agreement recognised Soviet control over Eastern Europe, concluded a trade agreement, and Russia promised to respect human rights.
1975 Russian and American spacecraft docked in space.

Circumstances leading to détente

Fear of Nuclear War

borne from the 1962 Cuban Missile Crisis
Washington-Moscow Hotline in 1963 (direct communication between both leaders).
treaties to control nuclear weapons: Partial Test Ban Treaty 1963, Outer Space Treaty 1967, and Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty 1968.
More negotiations to control the arms race started in 1969 in Helsinki, Finland. This culminated in SALT I in 1972.

Ostpolitik

The nations of western Europe were worried because they would be in the front line if nuclear war broke out.
NeueOstpolitik = “New Eastern Policy” in German.
This factor is basically the push for better relations between West Germany and USSR/East Germany due to the election of Willy Brandt as West German chancellor, who developed ‘Ostopolitik’. He saw a stabilization of European relations as essential to the interests of the continent as a whole.
Treaty of Moscow signed between USSR-West Germany. West Germany recognises East Germany + post-WW2 borders.
Hallstein Doctrine was abandoned, West Germany policy to break off diplomatic relations with states that recognised East Germany.

Vietnam War and USA Needs

Vietnam War + 1973 Oil Crisis = US economic problems = detente

USA faced stagflation (high inflation + unemployment). Oil priced quadrupled due to the 1973 Oil Crisis, OPEC decided to place an embargo on the USA due to its support of Israel in the Yom Kippur War.
The 1973 Oil Crisis made it lucrative for the US to seek oil from the USSR rather than its traditional Middle Eastern partners (who had imposed an embargo).
War = unemployment(returning veterans), and involved government expenditure.
A bad economic position made the arms race more painfully expensive. So seeking a ‘freeze’ on the arms race via SALT I made

Vietnam War = reluctance to engage internationally = detente

Why the USA would want detente because of Vietnam:

Economic costs
Public discontent with the war
Vietnam Syndrome(aversion to US overseas military involvement)
High human cost of war (58,000 US soldiers dead, 300,000 wounded)
Feeling that the USA could not possibly win a war abroad
Americans realized that there must be a better way of coping with communism than the one which was having so little success in Vietnam

USSR Needs

expense of keeping up with the Americans crippling.
USSR had a hit a period of stagnation.

Need to reduce defence spending to devote more resources to improve living standards to western levels, both in the USSR and in the satellite states
Too much investment in the military/ heavy industry meant they were weak at producing consumer goods and had to import grain from the West as well.
poor technology- USSR had to import superior capital goods from the West.
USSR would sell fuel / raw materials to the USA to earn hard currency it would then use to buy those imports of grain/consumer goods/superior capital goods.
USA negotiations with China, USSR needed détente. USSR had recently fallen out with China, and as the war continued, it may turn into a ‘2 on 1’ situation.
In May 1972, Nixon became the first U.S. president to visit Moscow.
signed agreements covering the prevention of accidental military clashes; arms control as per SALT I; cooperative research in a variety of areas, including space exploration; and expanded commerce.
The Helsinki agreement of 1975 introduced the Declaration of Human Rights acts and the USA accepting communist borders of Eastern Europe.
Other agreements ban of nuclear tests in space and banning small countries arming themselves with their own nuclear weapons.
With the election of Ronald Reagan, who emphasized military preparedness as the key to Soviet-American relations, détente as Nixon had envisioned it came to an end.
By 1970s both sides had become interested in accommodations to create a more stable and predictable international system, inaugurating a period of détente that saw Strategic Arms Limitation Talks and the US opening relations with China as a strategic counterweight to the Soviet Union. Détente collapsed at the end of the decade with the Soviet war in Afghanistan beginning in 1979.
USSR crushed the 1968 Prague Spring liberalization program in Czechoslovakia and the Vietnam War (1955–1975) ended with a defeat of the US-backed Republic of South Vietnam, prompting further adjustments.

Chinese Needs:

anxious about their isolation, nervous about American intentions in Vietnam (after what had happened in Korea) and not happy about their worsening relations with the USSR.

Limitations of détente:

Non-Proliferation Treaty did not stop other countries developing nuclear weapons (eg China, and perhaps South Africa and Israel).
Neither Russia or America kept to the SALT I agreement. Neither side reduced their conventional weapons. Further talks were much less successful and a SALT II Treaty in 1979 added little.
Arab-Israeli War of 1973, America supported Israel, and Russia supported Egypt and Syria.
Helsinki Agreement achieved nothing - it confirmed the Iron Curtain and Russia ignored its promises about human rights.
Table tennis and space meetings were just one-off propaganda stunts.
Brezhnev said that Communists would still try to destroy capitalism. Some historians suggest that Nixon only went to China to drive a wedge between Russia and China.

Emergence of 3rd world and Non Alignment

The Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) is a group of states which are not formally aligned with or against any major power bloc.The organization was founded in Belgrade in 1961. NAM owes its emergence to President Josep Briz Tito of Yugoslavia, President Gamal Abdul Nasser of Egypt, President Kwame Nkrumah of Ghana, PM JL Nehru and president Ahmed Soekarno of Indonesia. When the world was divided into 2 power blocs NAM aimed at steering clear of both these blocs and global rivalries and jealousies. It is a movement of underdeveloped and developing countries of Asia, Africa and Latin America referred as third world countries, as contrasted with affluent, developed nations of the west.

Soon it emerged as a movement of solidarity, cooperation among newly emerging countries of Asia, Africa, Latin America. It’s essential purpose was to maintain equidistant economic in Cold War rivalries and advocate principles for promotion of world peace and cooperation.

NAM was founded formally in 1961 at Belgrade, Yugoslavia which was its first conference. Initiation to participation in this conference which later became foundation of NAM a was based following principles-

country should have adopted independent policy based on coexistence of states with different political and social systems and should be showing a trend in favour of NAM
country should be supporting movements for national independence
Country should not be a member of any multilateral military alliance related to the power bloc conflicts
if a country has bilateral military agreement with one of the 2 great powers or is a member of regional defence pact such a pact shouldn’t have been concluded deliberately
if it has conceded military base to great power conflict such concession should not have been a result of the conflict

These leaders rejected outright the notion that east-west relations alone constituted international affairs and asserted their own role in sharing international relations. Thus they conducted the Conference of Afro- Asian Nations in 1955 at Bandung. Here they passed the Declaration on World peace and cooperation which embodied the principles of Panchsheel

Mutual Respect for territorial integrity and sovereignty
non belligerence
non interference in internal affairs
equality and mutual advantage
peaceful coexistence

At Bandung they adopted 10 principles for NAM they are-

respect fundamental human rights and principles of UN charter
respect sovereignty and territorial integrity of all nations
recognition of movement for national independence
recognition of equality of all nations and of all races
non intervention in internal affairs of other countries
not to use threat or act of aggression against other countries
settlement of international disputes by peaceful means
respect for right of every nation to defend itself
promotion of mutual interest and cooperation
respect for justice and international obligation

Aims and Objectives

established during the Cold War by newly independent nations to stay away from bloc politics
pursue foreign policy independent of influence of USA or USSR
contribute to world peace and harmony
since socio-economic challenges faced by newly independent nations were quite similar they decided to work together
Policy of staying away from alliances not considered isolationism or neutrality .

It's not isolationism as it means remaining aloof from the world but NAM countries were playing an active role in mediating btw 2 rival alliances to propagate peace and stability . Strength based on their Unity and resolve to remain non Aligned despite the attempt by 2 superpowers to bring them into their alliances
It is not neutrality as it means staying out of war and states do not engage in ending the war and get involved but NAM countries were involved in wars for various reasons and also worked to prevent btw others

Role of NAM during Cold War

new alternative in international relation- peace and cooperation
Relaxation of Cold War tension- role in Detente
Voice against imperialism, colonialism, racism, apartheid, all form of dominance
Role in softening conflict situation like Arab-Israel conflict, Vietnam War
Strengthening of UN because NAM countries constituted majority
Role in creation of Third World groupings such as G-77 in 1964, G-24 in 1971, G-15 in 1989
Promotion of South-South cooperation
Presentation of the idea of NIEO New International Economic Order . UNCTAD report Towards a new trade policy for dev proposed a reform in global trading system

Give LDCs control over their natural resources exploited by developed western countries
Obtain access to Western markets so that LDCs could sell their products and make trade more beneficial for the poorer countries
Reduce the cost of technology from poor countries
Provide LDCs greater role in int eco inst

Projecting the national interest of Third World countries
Role in formation of UNCTAD
Role in disarmament issues such as PTBT (Partial Test Ban Treaty), 1963, NPT, 1970
Role in protection of environment, human rights etc.

Relevance of NAM in Unipolar world

has not lost its relevance as the aims and objectives of NAM are still relevant
it represents 56% of world population, with 120 member nations and 17 observer states. It is the 2nd largest platform after UNGA
relevant in dealing with present challenges of climate change, terrorism, drugs, human and animal trafficking etc.

India's response to Cold War

Stayed away from the 2 alliances
Raised protest against newly decolonized countries becoming part of these alliances
In favour of actively intervening in world affairs to soften cold war rivalries
Reduce diff btw alliances and prevent diff from escalating into war
Non alignment served India's interests directly by

Allowed india to take int decisions and stances that served it's interests rather than interests of super powers and their allies
India was able to balance one super power against other

Problems of India's non alignment policy

Unprincipled as refused to take stance on many imp int affairs
India was inconsistent and took contradictory postures while criticising those joining alliances it signed treaty of peace and friendship with USSR
India believed that treaty was imp as it needed diplomatic and possible military support during Bangladesh crisis and the treaty with USSR didn't stop it from having strengthened relations with other countries

Activities and success:

major role in various ideological conflicts extreme opposition to apartheid governments and support of guerrilla movements in Rhodesia and South Africa.
criticized certain aspects of US foreign policy as attempts to run roughshod over the sovereignty of smaller nations
Since 1961, supported the discussion of the case of Puerto Rico's self-determination before the United Nations.
Since 1973, supported the discussion of the case of Western Sahara's self-determination before the United Nations
publicly committed to the tenets of sustainable development and the attainment of the Millennium Development Goals, but it believes that the international community has not created conditions conducive to development and has infringed upon the right to sovereign development by each member state
Issues such as globalization, the debt burden, unfair trade practices, the decline in foreign aid, donor conditionality, and the lack of democracy in international financial decision-making are cited as factors inhibiting development.
Reforms of the UN

criticised the current UN structures and power dynamics
recommendations to strengthen the representation and power of "non-aligned" states and improve the transparency and democracy of UN decision-making.

South-South cooperation:

collaborated with other organisations of the developing world – primarily Group of 77 – representing the shared interests of both groups.

Cultural diversity and human rights:

accepts universality of human rights and social justice, but fiercely resists cultural homogenisation.
appeals for protection of cultural diversity, and the tolerance of the religious, socio- cultural, and historical particularities that define human rights in a specific region.

Peace and Disarmament:

Consisting of many governments with vastly different ideologies is unified by its commitment to world peace and security.
equal emphasis on disarmament. NAM's commitment to peace pre-dates its formal institutionalisation in 1961.
The Brioni meeting between heads of governments of India, Egypt and Yugoslavia in 1956 recognized that there exists a vital link between struggle for peace and endeavours for disarmament.

Criticism of NAM

In principle, the responsibility of NAM is to ensure the neutrality of nations, but in practice many NAM countries have not lived up to it.

Hawana Conference of NAM (1970), it came to the surface that this movement had been divided into three camps:

countries which openly sympathised with the Soviet Union (Cuba, Afghanistan, Vietnam, Ethiopia, South Yemen).
towards America (Somalia, Singapore,Morocco, Ziere).
India, Yugoslavia and SriLanka cling to the policy of NAM.

There is a dichotomy between what NAM leaders preach and practice; often they have adopted stances in the UN at variance with consensus developed in NAM.
The role of NAM in world affairs had suffered as many of its members have been involved in internecine conflicts.

internal contradictions when the Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan in 1979. While the Soviet allies supported the invasion, other members of the movement (particularly predominantly Muslim states) condemned it.
bloody conflicts among NAM countries themselves:

war between Iran and Iraq.
Indo-Pak war of 1965,Pakistan received support from Indonesia,Iran, Turkey, and Saudi Arabia against India. This was in spite of the fact that Nehru had supported Indonesia’s struggle against colonial powers in the United Nations, and he was a friend of President Sukarno and led the Non-aligned movement together.
Chinese attack on India in 1962 revealed weakness of the movement as both were member of NAM and no NAM country came to help India.
unable to bear on lingering disputes like the Middle-east conflict and in the Cyprus which resulted in tensions between Turkey and Greece.

NAM could not make much influence towards peace as both the blocs have refused to change their policies in spite of repeated demands made by NAM.

For example, overriding the opposition of NAM countries,

the USA army crossed the 38th parallel in Korea;
China tightened her hold on Tibet,
American troops were air-dropped in Lebanon
Russia army entered Hungary.

Arabs and Israel fought several wars but NAM could not play any active role in solving the conflict.

freedom of countries like Algeria, Angola etc the role of NAM had been negligible. As the people of attained freedom after a bloody struggle and imperialist powers vacated them because of their internal weaknesses and constraints.
Institutional weakness:

Absence of secretariat.
Just based on summit and conferences

Some believe that the membership criteria, which have not changed in the 20 years since the Cold War ended, points to an organization frozen in time.

NAM was based on recognition that the decolonized states share a historical affiliation and can become a powerful force if they come together. It meant the poor and very small countries of the world need not become followers of any of the big powers and could pursue an independent foreign policy without being dictated .

UNO & Global Disputes

Tehran Meeting November 1943

first meeting of 3 allied powers USA, USSR and UK
UK and USA agreed to landing of a million Anglo-American troops In France in May 1943 to launch a second front against Hitler
USSR agreed to join the war against Japan once Germany was defeated
also discussed post war frontiers of Poland
Polish national council with communists domination was set up by USSR support

Dumbarton Oaks conference September 1944

USA, UK, USSR to discuss formation of UNO after the war
representatives of China were also present
decided to meet in San Francisco to hold meeting for UN in May-June 1945 to draft charter for UN

Yalta Conference 1945

USA, UK, USSR - when Germany’s defeat in world war 2 became certain
declared the common aim -

securing Germany’s unconditional surrender
agreements on future of Germany
inflexible purpose of the Allied’s to destroy German militarism and Nazism
ensure Germany will never be able to disturb peace of world again

after German surrender division of Germany into 4 zones with 1 zone each under USA,UK,USSR and France
agreement on Polish Frontiers include non communist Poles from London in Polish Provisional government and hold free elections ASAP
declaration of liberated Europe- pledged to assist countries and establish democratic institutions
ussr agreed to enter war against Japan within 3 months of German defeat
decision for UN
1 March 1945 decision to open all states at war with Germany to have UN membership so that they could attend the May June San Francisco conference for Drafting UN charter
agreement on UNSC structure, on permanent members of UNSC, on principle of unanimity of these members in decisions regarding peace and security

Potsdam Conference 1945

After German surrender
decision to curb Germany’s any future dream of such a scene
decision on Poland’s western border and transfer of northern part of east Prussia to USSR and southern part to Poland
agreement to ban fascist organisation
destruction of German military power
reorganisation of German economy by abolishing cartels and controlling industries used for production of armaments, payment of reparations by Germany, division of Germany into 4 occupation zones
bring nazi war criminals to trial

The United Nations was established on 24th October, 1945 as a successor to the League of Nations. It is the biggest political platform in the world today and has handled a number of challenges since inception.

Aims and Objectives

Establish Peace and avoid war - it aims to repress those powers which violate and threaten international peace and stability
promote cooperation and harmony among countries across the world by encouraging their political, cultural, economic progress.
It protects rights of both individual countries as well as human beings

UN Organs

6 functional organs of UN-

UN Secretariat
UN General assembly
UN Security Council
UN Economic and Social Council
International court of justice
Trusteeship council- administered territories under UN control. However since 1994 there is no territory under UN and therefore it is in a suspended state.

Role and Responsibilities of UNGA

UNGA acts as parliament of UNO, all UN members are members of general assembly. Every member nation can send up to 5 representatives to the UNGA but each has only one vote.
it discusses matters of international importance and ramifications, thereby, taking appropriate action.
it directs UNSC to initiate necessary steps for preserving peace in the world. It receives reports from UNSC and discusses them.
It passes the UN budget
it undertakes studies and researches to promote international cooperation
It elects temporary members - Non permanent members to UNSC 10 members

Roles and responsibilities of UNSC

It is an essential organ of the UN structure and its failure might lead to standstill in the entire organisation
it has 5 permanent and 10 non permanent members, with the former enjoying veto power and the latter with no such power. The non permanent members are elected by the UNGA for a period of 2 years.
UNSC controls the UN peacekeeping forces. It is a permanent body which is always in session, preserving peace and security in the world as and when required.
it imposes sanctions on those nations which threaten world peace eg Iran, North Korea.
If the P5 veto on some issue then that matter can only be taken up in UNO only when the UNGA passes a resolution in its favour with a special majority.
new countries can become members of UNO only with approval from UNSC

Essential Principals of UN

Internationalism- believes that international cooperation and harmony are good for everyone.
democratic institution does not discriminate between the big and small nations all are treated at par. Every member nation has only one vote in UNGA. Decisions are taken through majority vote in a democratic manner.
egalitarian outlook - believes in equality. It believes in peaceful resolution of disputes and military action is only taken up as a last resort. UN respects the sovereignty of nations and doesn’t interfere in internal matters of any country until and unless its required for world peace.
Doctrine of peaceful coexistence as it believes only then real human progress can be achieved
Idea of human progress which promotes liberal thinking, rights of citizens, rights of nations and basic human rights.
UN is not just a political organisation but has social, cultural and economic dimensions as well. The organs like economic and social council initiate a number of programmes and policies towards the same. It has 17 specialised agencies which coordinate and work towards different goals and aspirations for the global order.

Challenges faced by UNO

Domination of western countries with only 1 representative from Asia and none from Latin America and Africa in the UNSC
veto power of 5 countries undermine the majority opinion of general assembly
Dominance of USA
failure to establish international order and peace eg issue in Israel, Palestine, Iran, war in Yemen and Syria.
No success in achieving a global nuclear test ban treaty.
hault in reform of security council by permanent members
failure to deal with global terrorism. No definition for terrorism
financial setback to climate change after USA withdrawing from Paris agreement. Now rejoining again.
rise of conservative and extremists forces pushing for more trade protectionism made inward looking attitude. Increased trade protectionism, tariff wars etc
focus of nations on self interest instead of global interest
failure to deal with ethnic conflicts - Rohingya in Myanmar, Uighur in China etc

UN Peacekeeping Missions

The end of the Cold War unfortunately did not mean the end of potential conflict: After the Cold War, the UN saw a radical expansion in its peacekeeping duties, taking on more missions in ten years than it had in the previous four decades.

Between 1988 and 2000, the number of adopted Security Council resolutions more than doubled, and the peacekeeping budget increased more than tenfold.
Between 1990 and 2003 the UN undertook well over 30 peacekeeping operations.
At the peak of their involvement, in mid-1990's, there were over 80 000 troops on active service, from 77 countries.
In the late 1990s and 2000s, international interventions authorized by the UN took a wider variety of forms. The UN mission in the Sierra Leone Civil War of 1991–2002 was supplemented by British Royal Marines, and the invasion of Afghanistan in 2001 was overseen by NATO.
UN negotiated an end to the Salvadoran Civil War, launched a peacekeeping mission in Namibia, and oversaw democratic elections in post-apartheid South Africa and post-Khmer Rouge Cambodia. In 1991, the UN authorized a US-led coalition that repulsed the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait.

Brian Urquhart, Under-Secretary-General from 1971 to 1985, later described the hopes raised by these successes as a "false renaissance" for the organization, given the more troubled missions that followed

However, the growing complexity of the problems facing the UN and the increasing obstacles making success more difficult.
The 1991 Gulf War

Saddam Hussein of Iraq sent his troops to invade and capture Kuwait (August 1990), the UN Security Council warned him to withdraw or face the consequences. When he refused, a large UN force was sent to Saudi Arabia.
In a short and decisive campaign, Iraqi troops were driven out, suffering heavy losses, and Kuwait was liberated.
However, critics of the UN complained that Kuwait had received help only because the West needed her oil supplies; other small nations, which had no value to the West, had received no help when they were invaded by larger neighbours (for example East Timor, taken over by Indonesia in 1975).

Cambodia

In 1975 the Khmer Rouge, a communist guerrilla force led by Pol Pot, seized power from the right-wing government of Prince Sihanouk.
Over the next three years Pol Pot's brutal regime slaughtered about a third of the population, until in 1978 a Vietnamese army invaded the country. They drove out the Khmer Rouge and set up a new government.

UN prompted by USA condemned this action, although many people thought Vietnam had done the people of Cambodia a great service by getting rid of the cruel Pol Pot regime.
But it was all part of the Cold War, which meant that any action by Vietnam, an ally of the USSR, would be condemned by the USA.

The end of the Cold War enabled the UN to organize and police the solution.

Vietnamese forces were withdrawn (September 1989), and elections were held (June 1993) and the country gradually began to settle down.

Mozambique

was torn by civil war. By 1990 the country was in ruins and both sides were exhausted.
Although a ceasefire agreement had been signed in Rome (October 1992) it was not holding.
There were many violations of the ceasefire and there was no way that elections could be held in such an atmosphere.
UN now became fully involved, operating a programme of demobilizing and disarming the various armies, distributing humanitarian relief and preparing for elections, which took place successfully in October 1994.

Somalia

disintegrated into civil war in 1991 when the dictator Siad Barre was overthrown.
A power struggle developed between rival supporters of Generals Aidid and Ali Mohammed; the situation was chaotic as food supplies and communications broke down and thousands of refugees were fleeing into Kenya.
The Organization of African Unity (OAU) asked for UN help, and 37000 UN troops, mainly American, arrived (December 1992) to safeguard the aid and to restore law and order by disarming the 'warlords'.
However, the warlords, especially Aidid, were not prepared to be disarmed, and UN troops began to suffer casualties.
The Americans withdrew their troops (March 1994), and the remaining UN troops were withdrawn in March 1995, leaving the warlords to fight it out.
It was a humiliating backdown; but in fact the UN had set itself an impossible task from the beginning - to forcibly disarm two extremely powerful armies which were determined to carry on fighting each other, and to combine this with a humanitarian relief programme.

UN took no action in the civil war and genocide taking place in Rwanda in 1994.

The United Nations Assistance Mission for Rwanda failed to intervene in the Rwandan Genocide amid indecision in the Security Council.
UN military interventions had most chance of success when, as in Korea in 1950-3 and the 1991 Gulf War, UN troops actively supported one side against the other.

Bosnia

civil war between Bosnian Muslims and Serbs, the UN failed to send enough troops to impose law and order. This was partly because both the European Community and the USA were reluctant to get involved.
There was further humiliation for the UN in July 1995 when they were unable to prevent Serb forces from capturing two towns - Srebrenica and Zepa - which the Security Council had designated as safe areas for Muslims. UN helplessness was underlined when the Serbs went on to murder around 8000 Muslim men in Srebrenica.

Iraq - the overthrow of Saddam Hussein

In March 2003 the USA and Britain launched an invasion of Iraq to get rid of its weapons of mass destruction and to free the Iraqi people from the brutal regime
UN weapons inspectors tried to find weapons of mass destruction, but had found nothing of any significance.
The attack went ahead even though the UN Security Council had not given its authorization.
USA and Britain resolved to go ahead unilaterally, without putting the resolution to a Security Council vote. They claimed that Saddam's violations of earlier UN resolutions were a justification for war.
The US and British action was a serious blow to the prestige of the UN.

Secretary General Kofi Annan said their action had brought the UN to 'a fork in the road'. This, he said, could only set precedents resulting in 'a proliferation of the unilateral and lawless use of force'.

Secretary-General, Ban Ki-moon, the UN intervened with peacekeepers in crises such as the War in Darfur in Sudan and the Kivu conflict in the Democratic Republic of Congo and sent observers and chemical weapons inspectors to the Syrian Civil War.
In 2013, an internal review of UN actions in the Sri Lankan Civil War in 2009 concluded that the organization had suffered "systemic failure".

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